ECONMOIC CULTURE OF TIGRAY
BY
SINTAYEHU KASSAYE
April, 2006
ECONOMIC CULTURE OF TIGRAY
By Sintayehu Kassaye
Introduction
Currently, Tigreans are engaged in different and various economic occupations. Most Tigreans in the rural area, and thus the larger portion of the population get its livelihood from the direct exploitation of the land. Mixed farming is the economic field that holds the larger number of the Tigrean population. In the urban centers, inhabitants are engaged in many occupations, ranging from shoe polish activity to industrial activities. The urban population could be categorized into two: private and government engagements.
It is generally accepted that Ethiopians and particularly Tigreans are
considered as hard workers. Some even had gone to the extent of considering
Ethiopians as industrious. Is this common understanding real and true? If so why are we poor and remained to be the
poorest of all? Why are we living under the level of poverty? This is the
genesis of the conception of this paper. The paper is intended to assess this
nationally very important and the discourse of the time. Tigray is taken as a
case in the study.
The initial attempt was to make an ambitious research on a very huge issue of “The Cultural History of Tigray”. This title is huge in a sense that its scope is very wide and more complex. At the beginning, this was the title I chose to work on. Thanks to the comments given by colleagues, I am obliged to limit myself to the concept of Economic Culture of the region of Tigray. This very vast and complex topic was restructured as “The Economic Culture of Tigray”.
For long, culture had been observed, investigated and treated as an independent social aspect of a particular society. Most of the time the concept of economy was considered from the scholastic point of view of its theory and the assessment of the major determinants factors that influence economic growth. The cultural aspects of economy had been either neglected as having no importance or forgotten as anything else. Based on this, the major aim and target of this paper is to fill this gap (in which the role of culture in economic development and growth was neglected). This paper tries to analyze the relationship that existed between culture and economy. Within this great idea are included the culture of work, the culture of saving, and the role of religious practices and beliefs on both work and saving, and thereby on the economic growth and development.
The concept of economic culture is not a simple issue. It is more complex and wider in scope. Even though there is nothing exhaustive in research, to limit such a wider conceptual analysis into a manageable scope is an important strategy in research.
Because of the
above and some other reasons, thus, the study of the economic culture of Tigray
is designed to concentrate on two major issues of the economy: The culture of work and the culture of
saving. It mainly emphasizes on the economic aspects particularly the culture of work and the Culture of Saving which are the basic
elements of economic development. With in these territories the researcher will
try to address issues of traditional
practices that affect the economic culture of the area and other social
issues such as the philosophy of work,
the culture of saving, and other
matters.
As a result of the investigations, particularly concerning the culture of work, two attitudes are observed. Most informants have the stand that Ethiopian and/or Tigreans do not have the culture of work. Still some others are convinced that Ethiopians and/or Tigreans have working culture. Almost all informants agree that Ethiopians and/Tigreans do not have the culture of saving. Both stand points on the issue of the culture of work blame the Christian religious practice and beliefs for the economic backwardness of the region in particular and the country in general.
The relationship between culture and economy is significant and determinant. Culture affects economy and economy also affects culture. The reciprocative influence of economy and culture is just similar to the relationship that existed between the hen and the egg. The issue of economy should not be limited only to the basic theories and principles formulated by scholars, and to the economic calculation of demand and supply. More over the issue of economy should not only be limited to the best government policies. In other words, the investigation and explanation for economic growth should travel beyond theories, policies and principles, and should include the cultural aspect of a particular society. Although usually culture is thought to influence economic outcomes by affecting personal conceptions, reciprocatively culture also influence and affect economic development and growth.
In this respects, two interconnected aspects of culture are pivotal and determinant: the culture of work and the culture of saving. Economic growth and development is unthinkable with out well developed and sophisticated conceptual understanding and practical application of these two aspects of culture.
These cultural aspects are also highly affected by another cultural trait-religion. Religion is one important dimension of culture. Thus religion, as Weber argued, has important consequences on economic development. This is an aspect where most economic researchers and economists have paid little attention.
For the better understanding of the issue of economic culture, attempts are made to define some key terms such as economy, culture, economic culture, culture of work, and culture of saving. The definitions are literal ones and empirical in nature. The definitions are not metaphorical but in a way a layman can understand and conceptualize.
Methodologically, the most difficult inference problem with a social science researches involves the sorting out of directions of causation with non-experimental data. In the case of this particular paper, there is the need to know not only how culture and all its accessories affect the national or regional economic performance, but also there is the intention and worry about the reciprocative effect, i.e. economic development influence on culture. The influence of economy on culture has, in fact, been the focus of a substantial literature. This means it is believed and said that the development of economy will greatly affect the cultural aspects of society. Generally speaking, economic growth brings about better and progressive culture. Thus the focus of this paper is on the influence of culture on economy. I think this is the one that had been denied attention for long.
This research will basically be the product of empirical and observational
analysis. This is supported by field
works, interview, questionnaire, and literature consultations. Principally, the
research is qualitative in method. In
this post-modernist period, indigenous or local knowledge matters than the
so-called ‘official knowledge’, which is universally accepted without the
recognition of contextual circumstances and the right of preferential thought.
I personally preferred such qualitative research because a substantiated idea
of a person could be much greater, important and influential than a reluctantly
filled data and mass thought. On the other hand, no one has the right to
neglect the idea of a practitioner. A peasant around Shire knows more about the
agricultural system of his area than an agriculturalist from any higher
institution or the academia in general. Wukro is not the same as
I have traveled to
There is also a plan to conduct workshop on this issue of national importance. The workshop will consist of representatives of all Zones of the region of Tigray. The research approach to completion after the workshop participants enriched and commented upon the thence findings. The workshop is expected to consolidate the findings at hand and also attempt to find solutions for some investigated problems related to economic culture.
Almost all
evidences at hand attest that we need education, and thereby attitudinal change
to improve our economy. For these to take place the state and the society
should work in hand and glove. Particularly a lot is expected from the
Ethiopian Orthodox Church and the Ethiopian Muslim Affairs in teaching and
encouraging the people for work. Both religious centres better teach their
laities about the need for work on the bases of the holly books. Through the
mass Media, the state should also encourage its citizens to work with out any
discrimination. Citizens should be ready to work any kind of work. It can also
assist its people by making available trained expertise, by developing
education and the like. At the same time, the state should also be very
sensitive to hear grievances of the people. It has to avoid the principle of
“copy-paste” application. It should be ready and devoted to the utilization of
indigenous knowledge rather than worshiping the ferengies.
The hitherto investigation clearly show that Ethiopians and/or Tigreans do not have the culture of work and saving. We Ethiopians and/or Tigreans are living without any plan and culture of work and saving. We know nothing about planned life. We work more hours, with very backward technology or sometimes without the help of means of labour, for a handful of yield, and paradoxically expend more than what we produced. All these problems are the product of much precedence of traditional practices and laws. These include religious practices, lack of education, lack of good governance, lack of concern, and the like.
Currently, there are some efforts to develop the culture of work and productivity but with full of repercussions that need the attention of all Ethiopians and above all the government. An important progress is on the way. This is the cutting of holidays that retard the working force from using all days for work.
Although there are some attempts to improve the economic culture of the country in general there are many problems that need attention. And the basic question (how can we come out of this poor economic performance?) needs thorough discussion and investigation. This is the reason behind the call for a workshop in October.
“….the practical thing for
a travel, who is uncertain of his path, is not to proceed with the utmost
rapidity in the wrong direction: it is to consider how to find the right one.”
(Mesfin Wolde-Mariam, p. 45)
Survey of the Land and the people
The Land
It is common to hear that
most Ethiopians are proud that their country is rich and paradoxically most
Ethiopians are living even below the level of poverty. Is really
The country has also potentially rich center of attractions that means tourist centers. The basic questions here are why Ethiopians are living below poverty? Why the economies of the country, almost in all sectors reflect poor performance? Before attempting to answer these seemingly two but one question, the assessment of the economic structure of the country will help the easy understanding of the economic system and gives as a clue to the above basic inquiry.
Ethiopia cover a total area of around 113,000,000 hectares, It is one of the largest landmass in Africa epigraphically depresses diverse physical Features, Lowlands, high land plains ranging from about 500 meters below sea level /Dallol Depression/ to over 4, 600 meters above sea level /the semen mountain of Raw Dashen/ respectively. The high land area covers 35-40% of the total land. There many is low land.
In her climate
Dega: 2300-3200 m. m above sea level
1200-2200 m.m year rain falls
16 degree centigrade means annual temperature
.
Woyna Dega: where most of the agricultural is found.
- 1800-2300 m.m above sea level
- 800-1400 m.m year rain full
- 16 degree centigrade -29 degree centigrade mean annual temperature.
A substantial portion of Tigray, Wollo, and
Q0lla: - 500m-1500m above sea level
- 30 degree centigrade-27 degree centigrade mean annual temperature sorghum in common cultivating.
- 45 m.m annual rain full
- manly habited by pastorals
The People
Tigreans are
descendants of the ancient Axumites who were neither Tigreans nor Amhara but
who were speaking Geez and other foreign languages such as Greek and Sabean.
Their descendants were the people of the kingdom Da’mat. They were Da’amatese.
Tigreans are considered as one branch of the ancient Axumites who belong to the
Semitic language family. These people, together with other ethnically
affiliated peoples, used to inhabit the north eastern and northwestern regions
of modern
This society, as
part of the Axumites, accepted Christianity in the 4th century A.D.
The religion of Islam is also introduced into this part of the Axumite society
beginning from the 8th century mainly through Dahlak and the
commercial
In
the 19th century Tigre had been subdivided into Hamazain (Hamassen),
Serowee (Seraye), Kaligooza (Akale-Guzay), Agamee, Tegray Proper, Shire,
Adiabo, Temben, Inderta, Woggerat (Wajirat), and Siloa. (Plowden, p. 39) Geographically
Plowden described Tigray as a country “with no heavy rain, its soil in most
parts remarkably stony and the locust frequently occasion a scarcity of corn.”
(P.39) But according to Wylde, the northern part of the Ethiopian region had
been very attractive and fertile. Some foreign travelers “enjoyed the scenery
and the happy reminiscences of days passed in this charming country.” (Wylde,
p.140) While crossing Tigray and
A lovely march to
Axum, all nature blithe and gray and at its best; birds singing and busy
building their nests, butter flies in myriads, and of all colors, flying over
the flowers, bees hard at work, mimosa trees are mass of bright golden balls,
or lades with nearly white battle- brushed flowers, and the lovely mimosa with
a prim rose bloom which ends with a rose colored tassel, the most beautiful of
all. (Wylde, p.140)
The region of Tigray experienced ‘a long series of population movements and displacement over the centuries” for a number of reasons. (Tsegay, p.219) This situation made ancient Tigray “a vast plat form of early Cushitic, Nilo-Saharan and Semitic interaction which were clearly the early bases for the evolution of the pre-Axumite and Axumite civilization.” (Ibid) Ancient inscriptions contain references to ‘black’ and ‘red’ people in the area which is probably an indication of the early ethnic diversity among the inhabitants of the region. The ‘black’ may refer to the Nilo-Saharans and the ‘red’ may indicate the rest of the population of the region, most probably the Cushitic and Semitic groups of the community of the Horn.
In ancient time
that is before the development of Amharic and Tigrinna as languages, it was
very difficult to distinguish the Amhara from the Tigrean because both were
speaking Geez. The undistinguished people of the region of
The Tigreans and
the Amhara are the most stable societies both in culture and social structure
and thus they are most resistant to change. As a society both are conservatives
with a strong element of fatalism. They believe in that everything happens by
the “will of God”. And thus for them the ordinary man can do little to affect
the course of events. Everything was explained in terms of the Ye-arba-qan-idl.
(Predetermined fate of the human creature)
Describing the people of Tigray Plowden said the following:
Tigreans are “a race quick to anger but bearing little malice- eager, individually brave, faithful to their masters and their friends with less ceremony and more heart than their nieghbours- intending well, but wanting in the execution- united in their plan action, but disunited in the battle.” (Plowden, p.39-40)
In
any way as a result of long and layered process of population interaction in
the North, the region of Tigray remained consisting of more than six linguistic
communities with varying degree of cultural blend. These are Afar, Agaw, Saho,
The region consisted of the two major and dominant religions- Christianity and Islam.
We find both religious practices in urban and rural centers almost everywhere in he region. Economically, the majority of the people of Tigray are engaged in agriculture, and there are some communities that are active in trade. There are some pastoralists most probably among the Kunama. The commercial engagements, which are mainly dominated by the Muslim community, rage from small scale trading activities, locally known as Gulit, to large scale trading activities. Some members of the society of the region also engaged in handicraft technology such as weaving, Iron smiths, carpentry, construction and the like.
Many
Tigreans are rural dwellers, and hence most of them are farmer paradoxically,
most Tigreans do not have enough food to eat. They live in small huts with one
or two rooms. Neither Tigray nor the country-
Educationally, most Tigreans are illiterate. They do not read and write.
Table I: Educational Data
|
Educational Situations |
Urban Centers |
Rural areas |
Total |
|
Literate Male Female Total |
|
|
|
|
104,379 |
184,378 |
288,757 |
|
|
87,426 |
63,392 |
150,818 |
|
|
191,805 |
247,770 |
439,675 |
|
|
Illiterate Male Female Total |
|
|
|
|
41,801 |
706,076 |
747,877 |
|
|
100,931 |
855,046 |
955,977 |
|
|
142,732 |
1,561,122 |
1,703,854 |
Source:
(the EthiopianStatistics Authority, statistical abstract, 1997)
Religious composition: Most
Tigreans are Christians particularly Orthodox Christians as you can see it
from the table below. There are also significant numbers of Muslims. And our
economic culture is very closely related to our religious beliefs and
practices.
Table
2: Religious Composition
|
Religion |
Male |
Female |
Total |
|
|
Christianity |
Orthodox |
1,471,492 |
1,520,813 |
2,992,305 |
|
Protestant |
566 |
570 |
1,136 |
|
|
Catholic |
4,076 |
6,414 |
12,489 |
|
|
Islam |
|
62,632 |
65,025 |
127,657 |
|
Others |
|
1,400 |
1,280 |
2,680 |
|
Total |
|
|
|
|
(Source:
the Ethiopian Statistics Authority, statistical abstract, 1997)
Table 3: Consolidated
table of population status of Tigray
|
Population
Status |
Urban |
Rural |
||||
|
Male |
Female |
Total |
Male |
Female |
Total |
|
|
1.Total
population (3,136,267) |
214,066 |
254,412 |
468,478 |
1,328,099 |
1,339,690 |
2,667,789 |
|
2.Total Pop. by
Age 0-9 10-14 15-24 25-49 50-64 Above 64 |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
66,279 |
65,602 |
131,851 |
435,715 |
420,003 |
855,718 |
|
|
33,769 |
33,409 |
69,178 |
185,276 |
162,420 |
347,704 |
|
|
40,374 |
53,292 |
93,666 |
242,812 |
258,440 |
501,252 |
|
|
51,074 |
66,897 |
117,971 |
289,205 |
337,027 |
626,232 |
|
|
14,448 |
22,508 |
36,956 |
115,540 |
115,652 |
237,192 |
|
|
8,122 |
10,704 |
18,826 |
59,551 |
46,140 |
105,691 |
|
|
3.Religion |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Christianity Orthodox Protestant catholic |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
185,004 |
224,253 |
409,257 |
1,286,488 |
1,296,560 |
2,583,048 |
|
|
430 |
402 |
832 |
136 |
168 |
304 |
|
|
1,203 |
1,224 |
2,427 |
4,872 |
5,190 |
10,062 |
|
|
Islam |
27,197 |
28,353 |
55,550 |
35,435 |
36,672 |
72,107 |
|
Traditional |
11 |
13 |
24 |
11 |
18 |
29 |
|
Others |
53 |
36 |
89 |
70 |
92 |
162 |
|
Not stated |
168 |
131 |
299 |
1,087 |
990 |
2,077 |
|
4.Disabled = 90,742 Below 15
years old= 12,940 15-49
years old =38,465 50 and
above =39,337 |
|
|
18,748? |
|
|
71,742? |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
5.Education (above
ten years old) Illiterate=1,703,854 Literate=439,575 |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
41,801 |
100,931 |
142,732 |
706,076 |
855,046 |
1,561,122 |
|
|
104,379 |
87,426 |
191,805 |
184,378 |
63,392 |
247,770 |
|
|
6.Economic Status (Above 10) active=1,492,339 Inactive=644,795 Not
stated=9,822 |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
76,200 |
65,482 |
141,682 |
717,329 |
633,328 |
1,350,657 |
|
|
69,412 |
122,279 |
191,691 |
170,745 |
282,159 |
453,104 |
|
|
1,030 |
892 |
1,922 |
3,805 |
4,095 |
7,900 |
|
|
7.Migrational issues Migrants Not
stated |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
102,602 |
125,189 |
227,761 |
158,968 |
164,831 |
323,799 |
|
|
2,249 |
2,141 |
4,390 |
6,032 |
5,597 |
11,629 |
|
|
8.Fertility Crude
fertility rate(CFR)=34.1 General
fertility rate(GFR)= 151.4 Total
fertility rate(TFR)=5.4 |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
30.7 |
|
|
34.7 |
|
|
|
|
121.0 |
|
|
151.5 |
|
|
|
|
4.2 |
|
|
5.6 |
|
CFR refers to the total number
of births in a year per 1000 midyear population
GFR Number of births in a given
year per 1000women in the reproductive age which considered to be between 15 to
49
TFR is related to the number of
children a woman is likely to produce at the end of her reproductive period.
(Source:
the Ethiopian statistics Authority, statistical abstract, 1997)
From the above statistical data one can
clearly figure out the economic capacity of the country from different angles.
On top of poor working culture and poor saving culture, the people of Tigray is
suffering from various set backs that directly and indirectly hinder the
economic development of the region and the country at large. Even though the
economically active citizens are around a million and half, the other aspects
of economic development limit its economic activities. These limitations
include the religious aspects. Most of the inhabitants of the region are
orthodox Christians and who are entangled with many and various religious
practices and beliefs. Educationally, as well, most Tigreans are illiterate.
The larger portion of the working force and the economic sector of the country
and the region of Tigray are found in the rural area; paradoxically illiteracy
is wide spread in this same area. It counts 1,561,122; and the literate are
around 247,770. This number is insignificant in a population of 2,667,789. Of
this number 855,718 are children in the age between 0-9; above the age of 65
counts 105,691.More over the possibly working age 15-49 is equally distributed
between male and female. As a matter of fact and because of our culture women
are not engaged in productive economic activities. In one way or another they
are preoccupied by home non productive activities. It is on top of all these
set backs that we Ethiopians and Tigreans have very poor working and saving
culture.
Conceptual framework for
understanding
Economy,
Culture and Economic Culture
General Framework
Culture matters more than the work force and instruments of labor in economy. Culture is now at the core of a major trend of transformation. Ideas and concepts makeup the formation technology and economy. Economic culture has become an influential and basic sector in the economic evolution and transformation. The cultural attitude could not be imported overnight just like any merchandise or it is not anything that could be left for the market to be determined. It needs a long and persistent effort to be established in society.
Primarily development depends “not only on technology, capital, specialists, natural resources, but (also) on ordinary men and women or, on these non-conventional inputs that are the productive workers.” (Savard, p.9)It is understandable that at early stages economic development demands more and extensive man power. But this will be more fruitful if assisted by vigorous and industrious working philosophy and culture. “…genuine development is not the result of manipulation, or passive subjection, but of the people’s willingness to change, an effect that requires considerable time and effort on the part of the development agent.” (Ibid) The human element in development includes not only the number of the working force and experts, but it also demands the economic values, beliefs, behavior patterns or generally the economic culture of that particular society. The people matters greatly. No matter what change to be introduced, the decisive role to implement is always in the hands of the people. Citizens or the practitioners will be the key factor deciding weather the innovation will be recognized or not. It is the people who have to understand and accept what is happening and who have to participate in the process of change. With out such understanding and motivated participation no substantial and long lasting transformation is unthinkable and if tried to implement it will end up with crisis.(Ibid, p.10) Therefore economic culture plays paramount role in the development of society.
To change the land holding system, improve the farming methods and
develop the industry, what is needed above all is the man power capable of
achieving these aims; not only, of course, administrators able to carry on
programmes of land reform, but first and foremost people who will agree to
adjust to new conditions, and make the most out of their own potential. (Ibid, p.11)
Society is also resistant to new changes through cultural traits. The reasons behind the resistance are the possessiveness and in some ways the peculiar nature of culture and misoneism or lack of communication between change agents and the change deriving forces or the people. The latter factor happens not merely because of the ‘application of many languages’ but also it is because of the ‘attitude of the people involved’. (Ibid) People create some sort of resistance to change because they have already immersed themselves into the culture that is actually operating in society. People assume that what they have is the best of all others. And any new changes will distort their ‘best’ cultural heritage. On the other hand, people resist change because of the lack of information and communication or lack of understanding of the essence of the new approach. This is because the very agents impose the change upon the practitioners with out sufficient clarification and discussion. Avery interesting example of misunderstanding between change agents and practitioners of change is presented below.
A certain community was instructed to build
pit latrines. They did it as ordered and after three months a government
inspector found the latrines still in beautiful conditions. How could they be
so clean? The answer was simple. The people were not using the new latrines,
but keeping them for their guests. (Ibid)
In the particular Ethiopian case change seems to be fragile
because, in addition to the above mentioned factors, because most change agents
are foreign and the theoretical frame works of change-the researches-,
including this one, are worked out in foreign language. And most of them are
high level researches. We are teaching about Rockefeller rather than dealing
with the very small scale commercial activities- the gulit- of our locality.
Even these research out comes are not communicated to the people. Most of them
could note escape the shelves. Research papers are shelf decorators and means
of promotion and honor, some times sources of wealth. Hence, it will not be
surprising if people resist to a change that it was not communicated in its own
language and cultural understanding. Change and transformation needs the
willingness of people to accept and participate in action. Willingness needs
persistent and strong effort and clear communicative language. The former Tanzanian President J.K.Nyrere
clearly pointed out this issue as follows:
Every body wants development, but not everybody understands and accepts
the basic requirements for development. The biggest requirement is hard work….
The energies of millions of men in villages and thousands of women in the
towns…. (Nyere, p.14)
Change agents,
before trying to instruct people for changes, should know the real and inherent
tradition and culture of a community because “change takes place on a
continuum, not by leaps and bounds.” (Savard, p. 14) To respect the identity
and cultural tradition of the group is of paramount importance for real and
lasting changes. Without the recognition of the personality of the
practitioners, institutional communication is bound to be imperfect and
frustrating and even chaotic and waste in terms of resources and time.
The concept ‘Economic culture’ is not a modern idea created in the new millennium. Even though it was not commonly used, economic culture is actually inherent in the tradition of any society. It is not of course clearly described and defined. Otherwise it is the major and deriving element in the development of society. Economic culture generally refers to the cultural activities of society that are related to the economy of a particular society. The concept is self descriptive. It is made up of the two broad terms and concepts-Economy and culture. Hence Economic Culture describes the economic tradition of a society. It includes economic outlooks, experiences, activities, beliefs and philosophies that are inherent in a particular society. Societal philosophy of work, saving and investment are the major and pivotal elements in the assessment and description or explanation of economic culture. For further explanation and understanding the separate treatment of the two concepts - economy and culture- will be strategic and convincing.
ECONOMY
I am not an economist, and thus I am not claiming to give the philosophical definition
of economy. Here, I am trying to describe the concept of economy from the point
of view of a layman. For that matter, the intention of the paper is not
philosophization of concept; it is rather to describe issue in a way that they
could easily be understood by common people and readers. This is because the
issue of economic culture concerns everybody. Hence, in this paper attempts are
made to describe and define the concept of economy in the simplest way a common
reader could understand.
The term Economy includes all the resources that are utilized for the socio-economic, political and cultural progress of the human society. Economic resources include the human labour and it mentality; other natural resources on earth, and time itself. The natural resources could be utilized under the auspices of the human mind and the application of the human labour plus man made instruments of labour, and all these could be done through time. Hence, Economy means all natural resources including all mankind, instruments of labour and time as well.
The study of the systematic utilization and preservation of the economy is known as economics. Economics is a social science that studies the system of accommodating scarce resources through efficient time frame to the wants and needs of society or individual through the process of production, distribution, substitution, exchange, consumption, and preservation. Economics as a study of economy and its systematic utilization is a recent phenomena. It was inaugurated with the publication of Adam smith’s “The Wealth of the Nations” in 1776. Hence, the systematic study of the utilization, preservation and production activities of the society is an event of the second half of the 18th century. The economic ideas of Adam smith were only beginnings. Other scholars with varying analysis and explanations further elaborated the concept of economics in the proceeding centuries. Today, economics became an important study of the social sciences. Economy is an important base of societal development and progress. The study of the basic elements of development demands efficient thinkers. Efficient economic thinkers play an important role in the development of society or country. Currently, the capacity of analyzing the economy is becoming paramount importance than the availability of abundant natural resources. It is observed that peoples with abundant resources are poorer than peoples with insufficient resources but with efficient economic knowledge. Here comes the importance and decisiveness of education and developed economic culture.
Economy and Education: Education plays a decisive role in developing the analytical power of the human mind. Education is unfinished journey in understanding oneself. And the study of economy, which could be attained through the window of education, serves society or individuals to manage life. Economics which could be attained through education, enables people understand the potential and active resources, the economic culture and system of the society and to design better and compatible economic policies in all levels.
Economics, “in addition to helping people in their personal lives,… required for understanding key national issues and for making progress in dealing with them. People who have never made a systematic study of economics are handicapped in even thinking about national issues; they are like the illiterate trying to read.” (Paul A. Samuelson, p. 10) Economics has two distinct and basic roles in promoting the understanding of national economic issues. First, economics “helps to describe, explain, and predict economic behaviors-as for example when it helps us understand the cause of poverty.” (Ibid, p. 10) Secondly, economic knowledge helps people improve their economic performance and efficiency. All these of course need education.
Education is one of the basic components leading to knowledge, progress and prosperity or stable life. Education will help people understand themselves, their society, their economic structure, their role in the economic activities, or in general it helps people understand their place in the economic system. The economic utilization of resources, control of population growth, and the development of a good culture of work and responsibility to pay tax honestly and on time; all need educational background.
But education in
Currently, we observe high and repeated incidences of poverty, exponential population growth, and high number of unemployment, low productivity, and environmental degradation. In most cases people blame large families for their poverty. But is it because of their large size of family that people are becoming poor or do they have large size of family because they are poor? For instance, urban households need large number of children for their labour. They need their sons and daughters for assistance in the field, so as to win the challenge of life. All these are products of low level of education and the accompanying technology and low economic culture. This is the main manifestation of this new generation. Ancient people lived better and more or less equal life but with low service facilities and even backward technology. Today, when compared with its contemporary world, there is a much more backwardness in technology, productivity and love for work. Many of the young are not ready to work hard with out any work or job choice. There is a high degree of job choice. The new generation is more attracted with fashion and dependency. As a result the country is suffering from vicious problems: it has a very high rate of population growth to be fed by a very low agricultural production and technology that is manipulated by uneducated working force. Actually it can not produce adequate food and open sufficient schools to provide education educate its children. And thus the country is unable to use its economy systematically. Poverty continues to persist unless we do something to come out of the vicious circle. One the basic action to be done should be to develop a working culture.
Poor Economy Traditional instruments of labor High population growth Poor Education
The Vicious circle of our poverty
Hindering
culture
Hindering culture
High/incompatible consumption
Hindering culture Hindering culture
Education
and Population
Education
matters in the determination of the size of population. The population of a
country should be proportional to the natural resources that country possessed.
The natural resource should have the capacity to hold the population of the country.
One of the natural resources of a country is population. But population over
and above the other natural resources will create economic difficulties. Hence
the size of population a country could have is always determined by the
resources it has. In a country where this is not the case there will be always
poverty, hunger, disorder and other e socio-economic and political
instabilities.
Table.4: Population growth and Age distribution in Five Years
|
Year |
Population in ‘000 |
% of growth rate |
Age distribution |
||
|
Under 15 in % |
B/N 15-64 in% |
65 and above |
|||
|
1970 |
19488.2 |
2.3 |
45.3 |
51.5 |
3.2 |
|
1981 |
- |
- |
45.5 |
51.0 |
3.5 |
|
1984 |
42616.9 |
2.9 |
48.1 |
47.1 |
4.8 |
|
1990 |
- |
- |
50.0 |
43.6 |
6.2 |
|
1994 |
53480.0 |
3.0 |
45.4 |
51.4 |
3.2 |
Source: ‘Ethiopian Economy’,
Course hand out, pp.3-5
The above table shows a continuous increase of population growth and the age distribution is dominated by the unproductive children under 15. This is almost half of the population. Such circumstances plus very rudimentary technology and very low working culture seems to be the chronic economic problems of our society. Education is indispensable to come out of this vicious circle.
CULTURE
The meaning of
culture is conceived by different scholars in different ways. As a result, the
meaning of culture is becoming one of the most complicated because it is
applied and used in many contexts both for good and bad; useful and destructive
traditions and customs of the human activities. For instance, today we hear
that ‘corruption’ is considered as culture in government and business. What do
we mean by this? There is also the ‘culture of silence’ –Zimta- yechawa
Bahil. Elmer A. Ordonez also
explained his concern about the complexity of the meaning and concept culture
in the following way: “The word ‘culture’ is one of the most complicated in the
English language because it is used in several intellectual disciplines and in
so many contexts. Hermann Goering, Hitler’s Luftwaffe chief, is supposed to
have said, ‘Whenever I hear the word ‘Culture’ I reach for my gun’. (Elmer A.
Ordonez, p.1) From this, one can clearly observe that culture is not only for
good; it can also be used for evil that is widely exercised practices of
society.
The meaning of
culture could also be used differently in different discipline and systems: in
anthropology, biology, education, politics, economics, and the like, the
meaning of culture varies. Conceptually, culture has been defined and
understood in various ways by social scientists with specific aspect of
society. Scholars also emphasized on certain aspects of society as having much
more importance than others. Like wise I am emphasizing on economic culture
which seems to be the burning issue of underdeveloped societies like our
According to Getachew, Culture “includes wide range of material and non-material products. It consists of system of meanings, values and standards of conduct, organization of technology and production, social structure, philosophy, art religion, and others. Further more, culture also includes the nature and function of social institutions, such as political institutions, marriage, family, education and so forth. In other words, the term culture refers to the sum total of learned behavior that society shares and teaches its members through traditions, socialization process and education and not biologically inherited. The elements that make up culture of a group are organized into an integrated system and adjusted to the challenges posed on life by man’s natural habitat and by nearby and often competing cultures.” (Getachew, p.18) “Culture is static; it has an in-build dynamism that ensures change over a given period of time and condition.” (Enqopa, p. 11)
In his ‘Meaning of Culture’ a scholar named McKenzie defined culture as ‘the common chain that ties up members of a particular society together.’ In some ways, he continues, culture ‘is a way of marking out what makes people different and similar as well.’ (Society and culture, p.2) Culture could also be understood as either closed or open and its closeness and openness depends upon exposure to other traditions. Some societies consciously make their culture more closed than others because they fear cultural pollution. There is clear and continuous struggle between cultural traits to be exposed or to be contained with in its original territory.
Another scholar also defined culture as ‘a whole way of life, or a structure of feeling.’ It is also ‘the process at work that lends continuity and meaning to lives.’ (Raymond Williams, pp2-3).
From the above two definitions we can clearly observe that culture is closely connected with the accustomed and established or institutionalized social, economic, political and technical achievement of the human society. And it is also the major identification ‘color’ of a particular society. Culture is also the highway between generations. Culture can be seen as an invisible fiber of pollution by which people maintain some sense of possibility in lives lived on this earth. Culture is unnoticeably internalized from the very day of actions of people. Hence, we can conclude that every society has its own peculiar cultural system or cultural makeup that could sometimes influenced by the physical habitat and natural resources. These cultural makeups include various areas of activities such as language, ritual and customs, and the way of manufactures and the use of tools; and to the degree of overall social development. These societal settings greatly influence the attitudes, values, ideals and beliefs of individuals. If an individual starts to think or act differently from his society then he/she will be considered as out of culture or the one that pollute or damage culture. He/she violates the established culture. Hence he/she will be isolated from the society or he/she will be disgraced. In many ways culture is also the product of the ethno centric sentiments. In most cases and among most societies culture is conceptualized or evaluated in terms of ‘one’s own’ such as the Tigrian culture, the culture of the Oromo or that of the Gurage, the Somali, the Afar, the Benishangul, the Amhara, or the African culture, the European culture, the American culture, the Asian culture, etc. Culture could also be understood with the sense of relativism. It is not absolutely isolated from one another. No one culture stands by itself in isolation without being influenced by others or without influencing others. Cultural relativism clearly explains the dynamic nature of culture either through external influences or ‘the evolution of cultural elements over a period of time’. (Britannica, p.784)
The cultural historian, Raymond Williams, viewed culture as a means of ‘Resistance” Culture will be a resistance when ever it is considered as ‘ones own’ peculiar possession and thus it will be closed for every other and alien ideas and practices. Society closes its culture to avoid any cultural mixation. .In this sense, whatsoever a good culture a society exposed to, it may not integrate into its culture. The other side of its resistance will be manifested through resisting doing some societal goods in the name of culture. For instance, because of some religious beliefs peoples are sanctioned from doing work in some saint days. In this sense culture is resistance even to even to the common good of a society. Hence, it will be better to reconsider the cultural practices and beliefs of society. If culture is to benefit the society, it should be dynamic for good. It has to cultivate the good ones and reconsider the rest for their better utility value. This is not an easy task. A society to accept new cultural traits or to embark on cultural changes, the newly introduced practice
- should be similar to the elements already established with in that particular society.
- should be readily integrated into a pattern of the cultural elements already extant
- should not be in conflict with the existing cultural elements or patterns to disagree that the innovation is dysfunctional.(Brigitta Benzing, p.18)
Even though, culture seems to be very particular to the different societies living in the different parts of the world, it has also characteristics of communality. As a human creature human beings share some common cultural traits. And according to one of the documents of UNESCO declares that “in their rich variety and diversity, and in the reciprocal influences they exert on one another all cultures form part of the common heritage belonging to all man kind.” (UNESCO document, p.)
Culture is not only the collection of accustomed activities and ideas. It could also include the material achievement of the society. Thus, culture also emphasizes creative achievement of society that could be for good or bad. It includes “the objects and ideas that are brought into being from one generation to another by the acts of men in society” and their established institutions such as schools, Churches, Mosques; and accepted norms and social values. (Ministry of Education and Fine Art, p.1)
The Culture of Work: The work culture of a particular society could be defined in different ways on the bases of the cultural value of work that entrenched in that particular society. It is a common sensed that work for all practical purposes, is the bases of survival, development and prosperity, and hence considered as the one of the best and good social values of society. It could be commonly conceived as having a good cultural value. According to University Maryland Libraries Work Culture Task Force, culture of work of a particular society depends upon and is the product of “its history, tradition, values, and vision.” (Ministry of Education, p.2) This same task force also quoted a definition of the culture of work as “a pattern of basic group assumptions that has worked well enough to be considered valid and, therefore, is taught to new members as the correct way to perceive, think and feel” (Ibid, p.2) The culture of work includes many other societal aspects. These include shared national/institutional visions, values, priorities, rewards and other practices that foster inclusion, high performance, and commitment, which also allow diversity in thought and action. The entertainment of diverse thought and action further enhance performance and creativity. The culture of work meant discipline, cooperation/collaboration, creativity and vision of development.
Although it seems simple as any term to define, Stephen Palmquist reported that “one English dictionary cites no less than different definitions for work, ranging from sustainable physical or mental efforts to achieve a result to definitions such as to excite, provoke and to move slowly in relation to another part.” (Stephen Palmquist, p.1) On the other hand, Hannah Arendt tried to define and discuss work in connection with two seemingly similar terms: Labor and Action. In her The Human Condition work Arendt “argues for a tripartite division between the human activities of labour, work and action. Moreover, she arranges these activities in an ascending hierarchy of importance, and identifies the overturning of this hierarchy as central to the eclipse of the political freedom and responsibility which, for her, has come to characterize the modern age.” (Ibid, p.5)
According to Arendt, the three distinctive terms are defined as follows:
“Labour is that activity of which corresponds to the biological process and necessities of human existence, the practices which are necessary for the maintenance of life itself.” (Hanna Ardent, p.5) Labour is renewable and it is the natural and biological dimension of the human existence. In this sense, the human labour is closer to the animals. Labour is their common possession for survival. Both humans and animals need labour to survive.
Work, on the other hand, “is the activity which corresponds to the unnaturalness of human existence; which is not embedded in, and whose mortality is not compensated by, the spices’ ever-recurring life-cycle.” (Ibid, p.6) Work is the process of producing man-made things and artifacts that are necessary for the existence, development and prosperity of the human society. Work is an important aspect of the human condition that has the potential capacity to renew labour. It is through work that a new world is created which is distinct from the given in nature. For Arendt, the human activity of work is “homo Faber; he/she is the builder of walls (both physical and cultural) which divide the human realm from that of nature and provide a stable context (a common world) of spaces and institutions within which human life can unfold.” (Ibid, p.6)
Work is different from the perishable, impermanent, exhaustive, and that needs renewable labour in many ways. Labour is natural and biological, where as work is against the realm of nature because is shapes and prepare the world to suit man. Work is purely a human activity. Thus work is governed by the need on man and unlike labour, which is subject to nature and morality; work exhibits a certain quality of freedom of action or doing. (Ibid) Moreover, labour is meant to the individual, where as “work is inherently public; it creates an objective and common world which both stands between humans and unites them.” (Ibid)
Arendt defines action as the actual practice or doing or beginning of making things. Action is the beginning “to act, in its most general sense; means to take initiative, to begin… to set something in motion.” (Ibid, p. 7) She sees the real freedom man ever had in his/her action. Arendt adds that “humanity represents/articulates/embodies the faculty of beginning. It follows from this equation of freedom, action and the beginning that freedom is an accessory of doing and acting. Men are free…. As long as they act, neither before nor after; for to be free and to act are the same. This capacity for initiation gives actions the character of singularity and uniqueness, as it is in the nature of beginning that something new is started which cannot be expected from what ever happened before. So, intrinsic to the human capacity for action is the introduction of genuine novelty, the unexpected, unanticipated and unpredictable into the world.” (Ibid) Action naturally entails the involvement of people that relate to each other.
Generally
speaking, even though Arendt is trying to explain the tripartite human
activities independently and hierarchically, it is impossible to imagine one
apart from the other. Labour could not be renewed with out work; and work could
not be performed with out labour and action. Action is embodied in both work
and labour as movement. What is important here is that people need action to
use their mental and physical labor to exploit the resources of the earth for
change before their labour get exhausted and old aged. Action could lead to
work. Action itself is work because it enables man to exploit and subdue the
earth and its resources.
The Culture of saving: This is the other important aspect of economic culture. Saving is the capacity of accumulating capital and the proper utilization of resources of all types and in all working places, be it a farming place, private enterprise or government offices. Saving is the basic potential source of economic expansion/investment. In other words saving will make possible the expansion of work. Saving does not mean to deposit money at the expense of hunger and life dissatisfaction. Saving is rather the proper and equitable utilization of income and resources. Saving is thus proportional to income and resources. The culture of saving is the habitual exercise of the proper utilization of income and resource for the betterment of life on earth.
The Culture of Dependency: - The Ethiopian society is highly accustomed to the practices of accommodating extended family and the unemployed. Children above the age of 18 are allowed to live with their parents or relatives, and thus they are not obliged to find out means of living by their own effort. Not only children, because of the poverty that pertained with in the society, at old age grand-families are burdens of the working family. Thus, some times a working family was obliged to accommodate many other unemployed children, pensioned parents and relatives.
Actually the age
between 15 and 64 are considered as active and potentially a working force of a
society and the ages below 15 above 65 are dependents. In addition to these
natural dependents, from the working ages between 15 and 65, there are also
many who are dependents of society. In addition to the above dependents, there
are other dependents in the Ethiopian societies. This includes the many
disables. There are many disables in
Table.5: Dependency Ratio of Elders and youths
|
Year |
Dependency ratio per 100 persons |
||
|
Youth |
Elders |
Total |
|
|
1970 |
88.0 |
6.0 |
94.0 |
|
1981 |
89.0 |
7.0 |
96.0 |
|
1984 |
101.9 |
9.2 |
111.1 |
|
1990 |
114.0 |
14.0 |
128.0 |
|
1994 |
83.0 |
6.6 |
89.6 |
Source: “Ethiopian Economy”, Course hand out,
pp.3-5
Poor culture of social mobility: The
other aspect of the Ethiopian society, closely related with economic culture,
is the absence of social mobility. Ethiopians are highly attached to their birth
place. Most Ethiopians do not want to leave their birth place for reasons of
economic incapacitations. For instance, the policy of villagization encounters
many problems many times partly because Ethiopians do not want to go somewhere
where there is better resource than their birth place. This culture also has the role to play in the
economic development of the country.
Economic Culture
Economic culture could be defined as the societal conscious way of utilizing natural resources for survival and further progress. It also includes the conceptualization and harnessing of energy and strategies and skills developed over centuries to exploit natural resources and the conservation of nature itself. It could also be the opposite, if society is not aware of the conscious and careful utilization of natural resources and embarked upon the culture of devastation of life in general.
Economic culture
is the combination of the two very great concepts of economy and culture.
Culture as defined above is the common characteristics of the way of life of
society. When it is combined with economy, culture will be qualified and
limited to a particular aspect of the life of society that is the economic
life. Hence, in the discussion of economic culture, economy is discussed not
only as occupational aspect and resource management but also as the general
economic life of society; or it is discussed as a cultural aspect of society.
Under this topic I discuss the economic tradition of the society of Tigray on
the bases of the current economic practices. In the process of the
investigation the historical ground will be focused. The discussion of
tradition demands the tracing of history. And culture itself is also the result
of cumulative and summative practices of a particular society that had been
transmitted from generation to generation through both formal and informal ways
of teaching and learning. What we are practicing today is not an overnight
creation; it is rather the product of a long process of practices that became
traditions of a particular society. And we do not have today, in some ways, is
what we missed or do not practiced before. Hence, culture is basically societal
and traditional by nature. The time span of a particular practice, to be
considered as culture depends upon the nature of the society and the practice
itself. Some societies are more flexible and accept new things easily and
shortly, where as others are more rigid and conservative and resist new
practices. Moreover, some practices are more attractive than others and could
easily be accepted by society. Some practices take shorter time while others
need very long period of time to be accepted and incorporated into the already
established culture.
The economic
culture of Tigray, just like any other part of the country, manifests all the
characteristics mentioned above. The society of Tigray has its own way of life,
which part and parcel of the culture of
The people of
Tigray are engaged mainly in agriculture, particularly in farming the land.
There are some other economic occupations as well. Some farmers combined,
although it is a very small scale, farming with animal husbandry. Urban
dwellers live on small scale business activities, both in private and state owned
firms. The private economic activities include the Gulit and the Tella houses.
Other urban inhabitants live on wage paid by both state and private owned
employing agents.
Historical Survey of the Economic
Culture
In spite of the prevalence of good weather condition, soil fertility and relatively sufficient natural resources, including man power and rain fall, Ethiopians suffered from repeated hunger and disastrous poverty. The reasons for hunger and poverty were and are many and intricate. Despite the dominant poverty, some Ethiopians say that Ethiopians are industrious. An ancient Portuguese traveler, named Almeida, the major factors behind the Ethiopian poverty were the following: (in Merid, p.4)
1) Lavish consumption and expenditure. Although there had been much food, the food was not consumed as only food. The food product of the Ethiopians was also used for the preparation of beverage particularly Tella. According to Almeida, Ethiopian peasants, particularly peasants of the North drink more than they eat in apas.
2) Almeida also
included, the problem of plague of
locust, which, in some kingdoms like
3) The other source of poverty had been the lawlessness of the country. War among the various political entities of the Ethiopian regions necessitated the recruitment of a large mobile fighting force. Mostly this fighting force was recruited from the peasants. This decreased the farming force of the region and increased dependency. On the other hand in ancient times soldiers were not paid in cash rather they were billeting on the peasants. They were extravagantly exploitative and undisciplined in their consumption. What they were demanding was not limited and standard. The demands were various and arbitrary. Hence the continuous wars recruited the farming force, consumed the material and human resources of the country, and plundered and looted the peasants and finally led the country and the people to poverty.
4) On top of these
problems was lack of market and
market oriented mind. Ethiopians
did not carry food or any other good from places of abandons to areas of
scarcity. The main reasons for this condition were poor market oriented mind,
difficulties of transport, and very less surplus.
Richard Pankhurst supported the above three factors. According to him, Ethiopian farmers were suffering from repeated famine and poverty that was caused by drought and crop failure, ravages of locust, deaths of oxen, and the depredation of the mobile army and the consequential war, destruction and devastating causalities. (Pankhurst. p.216) Peasants thus were easily affected and exposed to severe hunger and death because the economy was basically below subsistent.
5) Poor Technology of production:-
The plough share. Basically the economy
of
Irrigation: Ancient Ethiopians
were not alien to the use of irrigation for agriculture. Irrigation was fairly
widely applied in many parts of the Ethiopian region, including ancient
6) Philosophy of Work. It is common
that Ethiopians are hard working people. Is it true that Ethiopians are
industrious? I will try to discuss this issue broadly later. Now I will strict
my self to the observations of early foreign travelers. Salt “acclaimed the
peasants’ industry, noting that, in Tigre, for example, laudable attempts were
made where they yielded nothing but stones weeds, thorny bushes and acacias”
(Pankhurst. p. 185). Another traveler Wylde assessed Ethiopian peasants as “no
harder workers.” He also added that “no Abyssinian has any capital, nor it is
safe, altogether for him to be known as rich man, therefore he can not lay out
money for improving his herds by keeping provender for them.” For Ruppell
Is there hard
and effective working philosophy that can lead to progress? If so, why
7) Religious Issues: Religion particularly the Christian religion desperately affected or arrested the material and economic progress of the Ethiopian society. It affected the economic lives of many people in many ways.
All the rural population is not engaged in agriculture. The rural population includes some unproductive groups of people such as the priests. Most young boys are also engaged in the qes timihert or the church education known as yeqolo Temari. This is the most working force of the rural society. In ancient time foreign travelers observed that there were as many as priests and dabtaras and deacons in the Ethiopian rural society. This is also true of the modern society. The travelers commented that ‘priests were numerous beyond belief’ consisting ‘nearly a quarter’ of the peasant population. In those ancient times each Church was to consist of ‘ten to twelve priests’. (Pankhurst, p.180) Today the number of idle persons seems to increase for a number of reasons such as lack of capital, creative mind, addiction to some medicines, poor working culture, frustration in life, ….
The Life after death belief: Christianity
teaches its people that the main and eternal life of the human creature is not
on this worldly earth of many sins but it rests in the “heavily
Holly Days: Richard Pankhurst pointed out that around 220 holidays were celebrated among the Gojamese in a year. (Pank. P. 224) Mesfin Wold-Mariam increased the holidays celebrated per year to 240. These were the major holidays other wise there were also as many as minor holidays. (MWM, p. 55) The people were left with 125 working days per year. These working days also include market, weeding, baptism, teskar, geber, digis, and funeral days. The observance of holidays is not purely and always spontaneous and voluntary, on the contrary it was augmented by social values and pressures and traditions. (Yelunnetta)
In
The observance of holidays was officially sanctioned by both the Church and the government through excommunication and awaj respectively. The following is an awaj declared by emperor Menelik in the early 20th century.
…
now we realize that the wrath of God has not abated due to your indulgence in
working on the Holy days especially on the Sabbath against the excommunication
and proclamation. Now observe the Sabbath and the other Holidays. Do not work
on these days. Any person found working on these days forbidden both by
proclamation and excommunication shall be punished. (Mesfin Wolde-Mariam, p.
55)
We are not of course sure whether the Muslim were abiding by this awaj or not. Paradoxically, the state was declaring such sanctified and discouraging awaj but it used to collect taxes, tributes that were valuated arbitrarily. Thus the laities were left in complete idleness during holidays. Ethiopians also observe long week ends in which Saturdays are equally sanctified with the Sabbath. So, Christians could not even draw water, hewn wood from Friday evening to Monday morning. And if a major holiday appeared on Monday, the week end will extend to Tuesday. The effect of Holidays is not only limited to sanctioning the people from work but it also consume much of the products of the peasants harvested at the expense of exhaustive and tiresome working conditions. The relatively lavish expenditure include the many digis ceremonies that include foods and drinks during holidays, teskar, weeding, geber or a big eating and drinking ceremony prepared for the masses by traditional high officials.
Fasting: The numerous and excessive religious fasting leave the large number of the working forces (some tomes more than half of the general working power of the country) with a complete inactiveness. (Pankhurst, p.223) It also “definitely makes people rather tired, lethargic and indifferent to work.” (Mesfin Wolde-mariam, p.54)
8) Lack of cooperation and respect to work: The longer part of Ethiopian history witnessed that Ethiopians lack cooperative actions mainly in the economic sector. For reasons of politics and political power they were and still are struggling against each other. Civil war is also common practice. This situation rather than being slowed down is greatly aggravated in the modern period. In ancient times, even though people were fighting the basic cause had been the issue of political power and economic control. Emphasis to ethnicity was minimal. Today succession of the political is followed by the destruction of everything that belongs to the previous regime. The modern political struggle is oriented with ethnic grounds and starts from zero.
Lack of cooperation could also be manifested through social and occupational discrimination. Work which is the basic source of material and mental wealth had been for long ‘looked down upon.” (Mesfin Wolde-Mariam p.57).The most productive and useful sectors and occupations were stigmatized. These include such occupations as pottery, tannery, weaving, smiths, trading…that are considered as occupations of socially caste groups of the society Workers in these occupations were discouraged and isolated or were caste groups of the society.
It is common to
observe in most towns of
Oh! If instead of being a blacksmith I had
worked the land or adopted the occupation of a soldier, I would not have had to
exile myself. I would still be in my native country, in the midst of a family
which loved me; and here I live alone in a cave which wild animals will perhaps
one day dispute with me. Oh! Why was I born a blacksmith? My skill in that art
made my entire life miserable. (Pankhurst. p.223)
Ancient leaders tried to avoid this problem. They have tried to give work and workers the dignity they deserved. Emperor Tewodros was one such leaders of the past. He was carrying stones for construction to be model for his society. On the other hand Emperor Menelik declared an awaj against such practice of discrimination and caste. The opening part of the 1900 EC awaj of Menelik reads as follows: “Those you who insult people because of their occupations better discontinue that practice.” The awaj continues:
So far you have called the black smith teib, the one who made the shema- shemane, the literate- tenquay, the one who served the Church- debtera; the one who cultivated the land and harvested both white and black; the one of whom it is said the farmer excels the Crown, you have called gebere; and the merchant who bought gold and merchandise was called by you ye ghteaba atabi lij, …. The lazy fathers whose son does not possess any skill whatsoever continues to harass (the society) by insulting the skilled. … you insult the workers so much there is a danger of destroying the country and turning it empty by absence of people who can make the plough-share. From here on, however, any one who insults those workers has insulted me and not them. The punishment for such an offense shall be one year imprisonment. If you government officials are not able to keep them imprisoned for one year, chain them and send them to me. (Mesfin Wolde-Mariam, p. 58)
This awaj seems to have no force and power to stop the insult and system of caste because until recently and even now we sense this discriminatory sentiment among Ethiopian societies.
9) Poor feeding tradition: Our feeding tradition is also another aspect of our poverty. We are not great fruit eaters, and consequently we do not make any great efforts to cultivate fruits and vegetables.
10) On the other hand the Ethiopian society did not encourage the sale of many items such as grain, milk and its products. Buying of such items was also considered as shameful act and socially contempt. A respectable gentleman should not buy his grain rather he should produce it by him self to avoid the contemptuous word shemach –the one who buys rather than producing. This was an important encouraging mechanism to work and self sustenance; but a paradox. Many Ethiopians continued to be unable to self sustained. More over, most of the working days are sanctified by both the state and the Church. In a condition where the work philosophy was also very poor it is unthinkable to be sustaining.
It is clear that the traditional Ethiopian society did not desire material wealth, nor they desire for learning manual skills. They were poor but lived richly for a number of reasons such as very small population and relatively better natural resource …. . They had pride and self respect than the modern society. They were very polite to each other. ‘They were brave … they would be considered quite civilized, at least more civilized than most of the peoples’ (MWM, p.61) the modern peoples of Ethiopia.
Generally speaking, poverty seems to have been ‘the most desirable spiritual asset rather than a social evil ...’ under the philosophy that says ‘poverty is not leprosy’ among the Ethiopian society.
What is
Different Today? Is there any progress and improvement? Or, are Ethiopians
still running on the same track?
“….the practical thing for a travel, who is
uncertain of his path, is not to proceed with the utmost rapidity in the wrong
direction: it is to consider how to find the right one.” (Mesfin
Wolde-Mariam, p. 45)
The Current Economic Culture
The central
theme of this paper is to discuss the economic culture of Tigray from two main aspects:
The culture of work and saving culture of the society of the region.
As explained above, the study of the economic
culture of Tigray is conducted mainly by field works. Because there are no
literary sources on this issue, the researcher found it obligatory and
convincing to conduct extensive field works. The field works were conducted in
the northeast part of the region. The rest part of the region was not left as
un important. It was because of shortage of time that the researcher could not
physically visit the south. But the purpose was accomplished through other
possible ways. Ideas of the south are incorporated into the research through
interviews conducted here in the campus. The researcher approached summer
students of the south and interviewed them. Therefore the researcher is
confident enough that ideas of the cross-section of the society and the region
are represented in the analysis of the issue.
Framing
responses: Informants of this
research include all walks of life. There were fathers, mothers, brothers and
sisters. Farmers, teachers, students, managers, members of the police force and
the army, Muslims and Christians, officers of various offices, and the like
were included.
The concept of
economic culture is not a simple issue as explained above. It is more complex
and wider in scope. Even though there is nothing exhaustive in research, to
limit such a wider conceptual analysis into a manageable scope is an important
strategy in research. Because of
this and some other reasons, thus, the study of the economic culture of Tigray
is designed to concentrate on two major issues of the economy: The culture of work and the culture of
saving. It mainly emphasizes on the economic aspects particularly the culture of work and the Culture of Saving which are the basic
elements of economic development. With in these territories the researcher will
try to address issues of traditional
practices that affect the economic culture of the area and other social
issues such as the philosophy of work,
the culture of saving, and other
matters.
As a result of the investigations, particularly concerning the culture of work, two attitudes are observed. Most informants have the stand that Ethiopian and/or Tigreans do not have the culture of work. Still some others are convinced that Ethiopians and/or Tigreans have working culture. Almost all informants agree that Ethiopians and/Tigreans do not have the culture of saving. Both stand points on the issue of the culture of work blame the Christian religious practice and beliefs for the economic backwardness of the region in particular and the country in general.
The relationship between culture and economy is significant and determinant. Culture affects economy and economy also affects culture. The reciprocative influence of economy and culture is just similar to the relationship that existed between the hen and the egg. The issue of economy should not be limited only to the basic theories and principles formulated by scholars, and to the economic calculation of demand and supply. More over the issue of economy should not only be limited to the best government policies. In other words, the investigation and explanation for economic growth should travel beyond theories, policies and principles, and should include the cultural aspect of a particular society. Although usually culture is thought to influence economic outcomes by affecting personal conceptions, reciprocatively culture also influence and affect economic development and growth.
In this respects, two interconnected aspects of culture are pivotal and determinant: the culture of work and the culture of saving. Economic growth and development is unthinkable with out well developed and sophisticated conceptual understanding and practical application of these two aspects of culture.
These cultural aspects are also highly affected by another cultural trait-religion. Religion is one important dimension of culture. Thus religion, as Weber argued, has important consequences on economic development. This is an aspect where most economic researchers and economists have paid little attention.
For the better understanding of the issue of economic culture, attempts are made to define some key terms such as economy, culture, economic culture, culture of work, and culture of saving. The definitions are literal ones and empirical in nature. The definitions are not metaphorical but in a way a layman can understand and conceptualize.
Methodologically, the most difficult inference problem with a social science researches involves the sorting out of directions of causation with non-experimental data. In the case of this particular paper, there is the need to know not only how culture and all its accessories affect the national or regional economic performance, but also there is the intention and worry about the reciprocative effect, i.e. economic development influence on culture. The influence of economy on culture has, in fact, been the focus of a substantial literature. This means it is believed and said that the development of economy will greatly affect the cultural aspects of society. Generally speaking, economic growth brings about better and progressive culture. Thus the focus of this paper is on the influence of culture on economy. I think this is the one that had been denied attention for long.
This research will basically be the product of empirical and observational
analysis. This is supported by field
works, interview, questionnaire, and literature consultations. Principally, the
research is qualitative in method. In
this post-modernist period, indigenous or local knowledge matters than the
so-called ‘official knowledge’, which is universally accepted without the
recognition of contextual circumstances and the right of preferential thought.
I personally preferred such qualitative research because a substantiated idea
of a person could be much greater, important and influential than a reluctantly
filled data and mass thought. On the other hand, no one has the right to
neglect the idea of a practitioner. A peasant around Shire knows more about the
agricultural system of his area than an agriculturalist from any higher
institution or the academia in general. Wukro is not the same as
I have traveled to
There is also a plan to conduct workshop on this issue of national importance. The workshop will consist of representatives of all Zones of the region of Tigray. The research approach to completion after the workshop participants enriched and commented upon the thence findings. The workshop is expected to consolidate the findings at hand and also attempt to find solutions for some investigated problems related to economic culture.
The following are the basic inquiries in the process of the research.
- Do you think that the people of Tigray/Ethiopia have the culture of work?
- What is your attitude towards the culture of saving? Do we have the culture of saving?
- For those who answered negatively to question one and two the following question will posed: What solution can we bring to develop the culture of work and saving?
- How can we eradicate poverty and promote economic development?
- How do you assess some of the measures that are taken by the Government to develop the culture of work and to promote economic development? This question refers mainly to the government introduction of “Wutet Tekor” and local credit systems such as the Dedebit credit system or micro-finance activities.
My informants could be divided into two on the bases of their out look on
the economic culture of Tigray: A considerable majority of the informants have
the opinion that the people of Tigray and the people of
With some exceptions, most
informants agree that Tigreans have very low or no economic culture. And if
at all we are to say that there is even low economic culture, this is also
under strong man-made (mainly cultural) influences. Most of my informants
say that “yes there is a high need to work but there is no work.” For them work
is found only in government offices. On the other hand, they also missed that
work is the product of work itself. The paradox is that most official
informants agree that most government workers are notorious in work. Once they
are employed, government workers are not as industrious as they promised at the
time of employment. One personal experience: An office was employing a worker
for the lounge of the office. One of the competants was asked whether he will
scarify his spare time in case of emergency. The reply was so positive. He even
stated his promises emphatically and agreed to pass the whole night if need be.
After a week he began to complain about the inconvenience of the working time.
What most concern Ethiopian workers is to arrive on time not to miss the time
signature. Ones signed they can most of their time either reading a magazine or
wondering from one office to the other, or chatting with a friend. This is
partly the product of the national working system. But, any one who has the
interest of work can work irrespective of the poor system. And there are very
few such industrious workers, who are obscured in a voluminous magnitude of
disinterested working force. Not only Tigreans but all Ethiopians respect their
master than their duty. This should be corrected. Peoples, in government and
private, assume that they are working not for their country but for somebody
who is their manager. Work is conceived, by most of us, as a private means of
livelihood. We lack the national vision. There is a high and ambitious but theoretical need for
work. This is the popular discourse. Many of us are considering government
employment as the only workplace and work opportunity. The concept of work for
most Ethiopians is confined to government offices. A significant number of my
informants told me that “people need to work but there is no work”; in this
sense work is conceived from the angle of government employment. We can not
deny that there are citizens who really work hard in government and private but
we should know that the concept of culture is societal by nature.
Even though there are
intentions to work hard and save, there are many traditional and cultural
practices and beliefs that hinder the interest to work and save. A number of
traditional and natural conditions greatly affected the economic culture of the
people of Tigray. Particularly among the peasants, there is great effort for
productively. But the land, which is really highly exhausted, only consumes the
great labour of the peasant. Saving is unthinkable because there is no surplus.
The condition is contradictory. People are not working hard for a number of
reasons but they need and are ready to expend more. This is done some times
through credit. In our country there is a clear wastage of the natural
resources, the human power, money, and the public property…. The paradox is
that we are not working hard but consume and waste more. Hence, as long as
these conditions are allowed to continue, poverty will continue to be the rule
in our country.
Hindrances are numerous:
- low educational standard, un
productive religious activities and traditions , poor working culture, poor health service, poor infrastructure, poor sense of national
development and poor preservation (protection and maintenance) and utilization
of national resources, poor management
and governance, poor saving, poor
leadership, extravagant home graduation ceremony, high population, shortage of
land, low knowledge of creativity and productivity, high sense of dependency,
poor saving and high consumption and wastage……
The Culture of Work
Most of my
informants agree that Tigreans have very poor working culture and even this
diminishing working culture is under a strong cultural attack. One of these
restraining forces is religion.
The issue of Work and religion
The Orthodox Church attends so many holidays. Until
recently, Ethiopian Orthodox Christians celebrate more than half of the days of
each months of the year. Do other orthodox churches attend Holly days? If not why we Ethiopians
only with so much holidays? What do people say about the impositions of so many
Holidays?
Since the fourth century, after the council of
Religion is one of the great
problems in economic culture of backward people like
The
Ethiopian Orthodox church attend many holly days, for some of my informants, of
the days of the month, there is only one day that is not a holly day. They
could not of course identify that one day with out a holly-spirit. Some my
informants, particularly informants around the town of Axum, relate this issue
of attending many holly days with the historical appointment of abuns from the Egyptian Coptic Church of
Alexandria and the badly need of the Egyptians of the Abbay waters. Informants
speculated that they were the Egyptian abuns who introduced and imposed all
these holly days up on the people of
In
most cases, the abuns sent to Ethiopia, in those old days, were not as such
spiritually educated but they were sent to lead the Ethiopian Orthodox Church
because either they “sought the appointment for personal gain or, more often,
were troublesome monks whom the patriarch wished to exile because, once they
reached Ethiopia, abuns were not permitted to leave the country until their
death. Naturally, such a person did not contribute to the enrichment of the
spiritual life of the
The other assumption is that these much holly days were introduced since the 15th century by the known monarch Zara-Yaqob. One of my informants, named abuna Merha Christos, told me that these holly days were introduced by the philosopher king Zara-Yaqob. Abuna Merha Christos is not well clear as why Zara-Yaqob did this. He suggested that the monarch probably did this, for fame and self respect. The king was also well known for his ecclesiastic devotion, and it could be also for his own spiritual appetite that he introduced all these holly days.
History
provides as with information which is more than personal interest. As a result
of the expansion of the
In this direction, the most successful king was Zara-Yaqob. Zara-Yaqob clearly recognized the weaknesses of the Church and its adverse effects on his government. He “was determined to implement far-reaching reforms, over and above those attempted by Amda-Tsion in order to undermine completely the power of the nobility.” (Ibid, p.58) Zara-Yaqob, who was considered as a deeply Orthodox monarch, used all his wisdom to manipulate and win the support of the Church against the decaying traditional nobility and the defective and culturally mixed Chewa regiment, camped in the south. For his reform tactics and strategy, Zara-Yaqob used the Church and its monastic orders.
To begin with, Zara-Yaqob tried to provide his kingdom with the religio-cultural infrastructure to be implemented, if necessary, through compulsory proselytizing. For him this will lead to the assimilation and integration of the heterogeneous population. The second role he assigned to the Church was preparing conditions for the active participation of the leaders of the Church in the centralized administrative system, which he was planning to establish. Zara-yaqob also envisaged that the Church was unable to hold and carryout these responsibilities before it cleared itself from the doctrinal controversies that preoccupied most of his time and intensified the divisive tendencies in the kingdom.
Stephen Palmquist in his “A
Christian philosophy of work” (http://. www. Hkbu.edu hk, 6127/200 /p6-7/)
indicated that God creative activities, described in the Bible, are ‘work’
/Gen.2:2.3/ and human beings are put in
a garden to ‘work the garden’ /2:5,15/.
The expression of innovative talent is highly influenced by several
‘cultural aspects of the work environment that either stimulates or suppresses
innovative thinking’. (/CRM Today, Best practices for Building an innovative work
Culture’. (p.1. www.crm 2 day.com/)
In most communities, work and religion are closely linked and influence to one another. How ever, it is the strength of the religion belief and practices that matters and strongly and highly influences work. The effect of work on religion is negligible.
In principle, work is religious. For that matter all religions teach that work is essential to the survival and prosperity of the human creature. Works is an important base of religions practice; with out work there is no human existence and with out survival there is no religious practice. Basically, religion advocates work as the basic necessity of human creature. This sentiment and basic principle about work is more or less practical among the developed countries. Many scholars discussed the positive impact of religion on economic development of a particularly society, because religious practices are full of work principles. When we come to our case, the impact of religion on work is different. Most informants agree that although the people of Tigray are potentially ready to work hard, the religious traditions hinder them from utilizing the working days efficiently. Most Christians remain idle in most of the working days. Due to the excommunications made by Churchmen, most Orthodox believers obliged to attend more than 15 Holidays in a month. The attendance/observance of holidays, in Ethiopian tradition, is to quit working and only to attend the religious ceremonies without being engaged in productive activities. They only pass most of their time by giving thanks to holy saints and angle. This is a practice that could be done even on duty. For example most Muslims like this. They pray and immediately return to work. For that matter, of the 30 days of a month more than 20 days are considered to be holidays. There are others who also calculated the monthly holidays to 29. But of course it is obvious that people do not attend and observe all the 29 holidays. And most Orthodox Christians attend and celebrate most of the holydays. There are other days in which people are out of productive work. These include the notorious meetings and national and secular holidays. These days, meetings are also considered as the means of boycotting work. There are inactive workers and managers whose doors are closed because of “meetings”.
The problem is
not only to divorce from work due to many holidays but the holidays also need
ceremonial celebrations locally known as “deges“. These “deges” were and still
are extravagant and completive in nature. Thus, it is expensive in both senses
of finance and time. The paradox is that people are not
working hard and do not
utilize all the working days but
expend more than what they had produced
to celebrate the holy saints. Some informants connected and related the
introduction of the culture of celebrating these much holidays with the
historical Ethio-Egyptian uneasy relations that emanated from the question of
the utilization of the Abbay waters, which is the life pipe line of the
Egyptians. And unfortunately it was naturally born in
The holydays
made the people out of work and paradoxically encouraged them to expend
lavishly to celebrate the holidays. All these kept the people and the country
under poverty and thus
But the bishop of the Mekelle synod does not agree with the above assumption. He shares the idea that Ethiopian Orthodox Christians attend many holyday days in a month and in a year. He traces the introduction of these holydays to the period of King Zera Yaqob. For him, they were not Egyptian bishops but Zera Yaqob that imposed these much holydays up on his people. The bishop is not clear with reasons behind the impositions of these holidays by Zara-Yaqob upon his people. History tells us that the time of Zara-Yaqob was a period when the integrating role of the Church had deteriorated. The relationship between the Church and State had been eroded and the Church had already lost its position of acting as the strong and right hand of the state. Zara-Yaqob was a reformist. One area of his reform was the Church. The Mekelle Bishop clearly stated that the Church laws do not legalized these much holidays. Other Orthodox Churches do not have these much holidays and thus there is no any ground for us to introduce and observe these much holidays. He declared that there are only NINE holydays in a year, the weekly Saturdays and Sundays. These holydays, according to the bishop are related to Jesus Christ, and as follows:-
1. Birth Day of Christ- Tahisas 29 of every
year
2. Tahisas 29 when Christ became Human
3. Baptism of Christ or the Ethiopian
epiphany-Tir 11
4. the July Buhe/hawaria Nehase 13
5. Death Day of Christ
6. The day of his insurrection Ginbot 18 or…..
7. the time when Christ was seen by his
disciples
8. Saturdays
9. Sundays
Most of these Holidays rest on either Saturdays or Sundays and thus the total annual and religiously holidays are around SIX in number.
The other holidays are days in which any Christian can observe but which do not limit us from work. We can observe them and at the same time we can work. The inactive observation of many holidays is could be a pretext of those who do not like to work.
He said we can remember or observe as many as spiritual occurrences monthly, but this does not obstruct people form doing works. Paradoxically, it is during these holydays that a large number of Christians do many bad things ranging from intoxication with all its accessories to the act of gossip. To hear such modern idea from a Church high official is not common. I was surprised by what he said. I asked him whether other colleagues share his idea or not. There are very few who share his religious philosophy. The larger portion of the Church men does not accept this, because they consider the issue as a violation to the tradition and doctrine. More over, it is a stand against the economic sources of many Churchmen. Most of them, many of the church priests, debteras and deacons live on the ceremonies of holydays.
Religion does not only affect the economy by
making the working force idle but it
also advocate the periodic celebration of dead families, which is commonly
known as Teskar. The issue of religiosity is a matter of
controversy. Many scholars have seen religiosity as having a positive impact up
on economic activities. Others allege religiosity as having a great negative
influence on economic development. More religious observances and beliefs
result in less economic development. Both are equally correct. Traditionally,
the religious attendances and religious beliefs vary from country to country or
from society to society. The Church laws and regulations are also interpreted
and put in to effect differently by different societies. Hence, the religious
understanding of the richer societies is not similar with that of the poor
ones. Similar religious doctrines follow and practice differently. For example,
there are Orthodox Churches in some countries of the world. The Orthodox
Christianity is also widely practiced and believed in
On the other
hand, scholars who consulted the Bible, explain that religion is an important civil
society or institution that advocates “work” as the only means to economic
development. For them, most of the religious attendances and beliefs are
unbiblical and outside the law of the Church. Moreover, these scholars argue
that most of the religions attendance and beliefs, that consume much of the
produce and working time of men are artificial and creations of the earthly man
not God. These are not rules of real Christianity. Christianity, for that matter, advices the
laity to”Live on his/her sweat.”
Islam, on the other hand, has no much
holidays like that of Christianity. According to Ato Tsegay Hadgu and Ato
Abdulwasse Rzuq, Muslims could resume work even after they celebrate their
religious activities on Fridays. Ato Abdulwasse confirmed that the Muslim
community is ordered religiously to attend only three holidays a year. On other
days Muslims are free to work. This seems to be the reason behind the economic
betterment of the Muslim community. Begging is un religious among the Muslims
where as this condition is becoming cultural among the Christians. For
instance, the church comprised many working force, and one of them are the Qollo
Temari (Church students), who are very young working men. These Church
students, at their early age, are experiencing non-laborious activities around
the Church and are also making the art of begging a culture. Begging is
becoming religious and normal. It also erodes their sense of living on work. In
most cases such students are living in urban centers. This will kill their
sense of working in the rural area.
Poor and unpractical Educational
Culture
All agree that the large majority of the people of Tigray and
Even this transplanted education lacks
practicality. And the few educated are not ready to apply their knowledge
infavour of their society. We are learning in foreign language and try to
conduct researches in foreign language, which is alien to the illiterate
masses. The few learnt including the agriculturalist also want to live and
“work” in towns than in the rural areas. Our education produces theorists than
practitioners. (Inf. Kindeya Abreha)
More over, some Tigrean peasants openly talk
their concern on education as follows: We send our children to schools. We
spend what all we have, but children are forced to come back due to detention.
This is becoming an extending source of poverty. Then resume nagging condition
between children and parents-Children wants to continue education in private
colleges and parents are not in a position to support them because the fee is
“up-rooting”. To satisfy their children many parents tied to send their
children to towns where ther are private colleges. Away from parents, children
need money to afford their shelter, closing, and food in addition to the
educational payment. There is also the extravagant graduation expenditure for
which employment opportunity is rare. New graduates are not ready to return
home in the rural areas after graduation and work with parents until employment
is secured. The new graduates of the rural areas continue to seat in the urban
centres on the pretext of searching for work. The financial subsidy from the
poor farmer parents continues. In other words, dependency continues with out
any labour support. Even in such circumstances of scarcity of employment,
graduates are observed making choices of work.
They are not ready to work any work until a professional field is
secured. (Info. Birhane Gidey, Kiros Aregawi, Tasaw Nera, and others)
It will be very impressive to mention what Dr
Daniel, one of my informants observed while he paid visit to the Tekeze
hydro-electric project run by the Chinese. Daniel told me that he heard the
Chinese saying that “one Chinese is better than 30 Ethiopians.” This seems to
emanate from the Ethiopian poor culture of work that angered the Chinese. This
is really astonishing and scar full because what is constructed is for our own
benefit. This also remembered me what Prime Minister Meles had ones said:
rJÑN ¨µÍ BBt$ SR kè Xyöm b!ÃScG‰cý ÒYÂýÃN y¨µÍýN
Xˬ xúÈ„T bz!H g!z@ dGä b+ñc$ SR ¨SgBè mS¶ÃWN xµÍ mqmÅ xdrgW
Wastage of Time due to Poor
Technology and suspension of duties
Ranging from the house knife, most of our
instruments of labour are labour consuming. They are not supportive and
facilitators of work. We are not making them ready to facilitate work. If the
knife we use at home is not sharp we need more and unnecessary time to
accomplish a duty. There is wastage of time. (Info. Mesfin Amare) Tigreans have
the culture of suspending duties for the next time. Tomorrow is unknown for
us. (Info. Mulu Mebrehatu)
Informant Nega Gabraegzabeher also shared his
experience of time wastage as follows:
bDHnT Qnú z#¶Ã lmwÃyT bS‰ qN SBsÆ t-‰ bh#lT sxT
btwsnW ySBsÆ ï¬ XNDNg" tngrN X¾M bsxt$ ÿDN:: sBúb!ãc$ ‰úcW GN kxND sxT b“§ m-#:: h#§CNM bxND sxT zgyN ¥lT nW::
mMH‰n# k¥St¥R S‰cW l@lÖCM kb!é S‰cW Ælg#Ä×CN k¥StÂgD bxND sxT zg†:: Ælg#Ä×CM bXND sxT kyS‰cW tÙ¯l#:: Slz!H ÃÆkNW sxT xND sxT BÒ úYçN XJG bÈM Bz# nW:: ¬Dà YH DHnT Qnú WYNS DHnT ¥ÆÆS YçN ?
Lack of creativity and competitiveness
Because of lack of economic knowledge and
poor economic promotion, peoples are supposed to be engaged in very similar
economic fields. This trend will narrow the possibilities of economic progress
and diversification and creativities. It will also diminish quality and
alternation of production. It is also an obstacle to pioneers. This is another
manifestation of poor economic cultural. In gross the young has no the
philosophy of work. There is much dependency. The young prioritized leisure
than work. There is high need of dancing than working. (Info. Desta Kahsay and
Mulu Mebrehatu)
Expensive and unproductive cultural
ceremonies
Tigreans and most Ethiopians celebrate many
expensive and unproductive ceremonies. Some of these are marriage, Teskar
(ceremonies made for deceased relatives), and other degeses such as mehaber.
This issue is the main paradox in the economic culture of Tigray. In a
condition where the work culture is very poor or non-existence, there is a high
consumption and wastage of working time. The very interesting case to mention
her is that a peasant around Samre consumed 65 quintals of teff for a teskar.
(info. Kiros Kahsay, Fesehatsion Teka)
Today there another newly developing culture
that attack the economic capacity of People. This is the Graduation Ceremony. Peoples raise
the issue of graduation ceremony with very high exhaustion and fade up. The
problem is that a person could be invited by many graduates or their family.
The gift in many cases ranges from a battle of alcohol to many other expensive
materials. If a man is invited into around ten residences for graduation
ceremony, he/she is expected to expend more than hundred birr per day out of
his or her plan. This uneconomical ceremony is becoming destructive epidemic.
(Info. Haile Mezgeb)
Poor Governance
A considerable number of people visit courts,
administrative offices and other offices for reasons of justice and routine and
regular activities. Because of repeated appointments and absentees and
reluctance and bureaucratic nature of responsible persons in the different
offices citizens are subject to visit offices and courts suspending their own
duties. Their presence some where out side their actual duty will also divorce
other people from work. It is unbroken chain. Hence in addition to much
religious holidays, public holidays, continuous meetings and etc, people are
made idle by very intricate bureaucratic system of administration. Because of
this poor system, most of our economic policies’, even though good, impressive
and attractive, implementation, most of the time, is entangled by many other
intricate and complex factors. (Info. Sahle-Selassie Teka, Haile-Mariam, Tsegay
Abreha, others)
Here, I want to raise what I
felt very important. Today, the economic policy of
Poor National Sense and Vision
When it comes to the issue of economy there
is very diminishing sense and vision on the national level. Economic issues are
conceived as being the concern of individuals. The role an individual is not
considered as having a role to play in the national development. Public and
state properties are properties without owners. Possessiveness of such public
properties is really very poor. Hence, on top of our poor work culture, the limited
public properties and resources are under a destructive wastage and insecurity.
(Info. Berhe Geber-Kidan)
Poor Rewarding Culture
All the people and the sate do not have the
culture of reward. Owners of enterprises and managerial officers are not leaders
of work and performance in the real sense of the word. In most case officers
are bosses. They are controls. Mostly we Tigreans and Ethiopians emphasize on
set backs than good achievements. And hence, we lack the culture of reward.
Reward ranges from the encouraging phrase “Thank You” to many other material
rewards. This will prepare people for further strength and achievements. (Info.
Girmay Tadele and many other informants) In this respect, there is a custom
which tries to ignore the positive aspect of the human achievements and that
tries to emphasize on the weak side of a worker. In most meetings leaders are
not ready to start from the good side and then criticize the weak side
systematically. Criticisms are bombarding and devastating in our culture. This
will create the sense of frustration and peoples began to conceive the Amharic
frustrating say- ‘yat lemedras’ (Literary, means “where to reach” or “what to
create”). Reward is one way of building confidence in performance.
Confidence emanates from knowledge, experience, encouragement and freedom from fear of making mistakes, freedoms of action and say----- Because of it’s delicacy, confidence could be easily hampered by aggressive and unconstructive criticisms. It will be very encouraging and demanding to start with the better and well accomplished part of a duty. Start with the good ones and the positive part of work accomplished when ever you criticize. Even to hear the say of others and recognize what others say could be considered as a means of encouraging peoples for better performance. Hence do not undermine idea of other individuals. It builds confidence.
The culture of work could also develop through conducive working environment. Conducive working environment refers to good governance, interest development, peaceful interaction among workers, attractive salary / out put/ and incentives. To make marriage between work and profession is also part of encouraging workers. Assigning an employee on the right place is another way of developing the culture of work. There are people who are assigned apart from what they know and trained for. Such kinds of appointments seriously affect performance and erode the culture of work. Reward and encouragement will result in individual interest to work and the sense of belongingness and possessiveness: citizens should think that they belong to the nation and they have equal responsibility in the existence, continuation and prosperity and development of their country. Hence, what ever they do has its own place in the development of their country. To develop belongingness, it will help to avoid the “they” and “us” dichotomy or expression and replace it by the expression “we”, “our”……..
We are really poor in
encouraging hard workers. We need to thank for any work accomplished on time or
rightly. We need to point out and emphasize on the good aspect of a particular
accomplishment and even try to leverage their strengths to become success full.
Optimize the work environment is also an
important aspect of encouraging people for work. To distribute work materials
indiscriminately and equally some how create conducive work environment. The
material or some other differences between or among workers should be narrowed
down. At home feeling should develop around working areas. Such feeling could
be created by making available, in close proximity, such essential comforts
such as water, snacks, latrine and the like. Generally, the work and the
working environment should be ergonomic, comfortable and inviting. All these
help create a welcome space where individuals do not feel trapped, and are able
to work more efficiently and make work a culture. When seen regionally, all
these are absent here in Tigray, and
Unproductive Dealings
Particularly currently Ethiopians and above all Tigreans adopted the culture of meeting that will bring nothing to the economic development of the society. Well informants do not deny the importance of meetings but nowadays public conferences are becoming really additional grievances of the society that hinder them from struggling against nature. When considered with religious holidays, public closings for public celebrations, and other social activities such as marriage, burial ceremonies, private duties other than economic ones, the exhaustive and boring, because most meetings are long; and continuous meetings are so sour to shoulder them. They are becoming the main obstacles to economic efforts.
Working
hands are also kept idle because of a number of reasons such as poor governance
and culture. There are many working hands that pass their time around the
court. For instance, At Hagos Abreha pointed out that people from far areas
come to the town of
Other circumstances where working hands are kept idle include such traditions as laqso, qabir, deges and the like. When ever a person dies all members of the family, relatives and friends will seat down denying any working activities. The family and close relatives and friends are expected to seat down for about a week.
Among the rural region, the government could help peasants to perform effective work and hence useful work through experts. This should be conducted far from the political target. More over, it is the willingness of citizens to invest labour that matters in the development of the culture of work that eventually leads to economic promotion, growth and development.
Poor infrastructure; It is well known and obvious that
morethan 80% of the population of
Over population
Among most Tigreans poverty is considered as a “Godly granted” fate. At large this is the sentiment of most Ethiopians. The implication of such sentiment is that poverty could not be defeated by work. The poor working culture also emanate from such sentiments. The other dangerous aspect of the Tigrean belief is their conception about family or birth. Truly speaking birth is one of the most mysterious gifts of God to the human creature. But it demands careful reconsideration and management. In this respect, peoples of our country are convinced or determined to give birth as long as they are capable of doing it. “Lij ba edilu yadgal” (Literally, means: ‘a child will grow on his own fate’) Amharic expression is the overriding principle. Because of this common belief, the birth in Ethipia is more than normal. The paradox continues as follows: We have poor working culture, high cultural consumption rate, and high birth rate. At average, a woman could give birth to twelve children. This data seems to have been minimized by some conscious families’ family planning; otherwise an individual woman gives birth to more than this number. This is very critical in the rural areas, where the main base of the economy is located. “Children are born not by choice but by chance.” (Info. Nega Gebre-Egzabher.) This becomes more difficult when men have more than one wife. The Ethiopian television had exposed a farmer who has more than eighty children from different wives.
Moreover,
the Tigrean family just like any other Ethiopian family is characteristically
extended. So, dependants in a family include other parents and relatives as
well. The consumption rate is not only increasing because of teskar, mehaber
and the like but also by extended family dependencies. In the rural areas, in
addition to high consumption and expenditure, high birth rate also entails the
further break down of farm land, additional psychological frustration. (Info.
Haile-Mariam Hailu and Birhane Kassa, Kiros Kahsay and others)
THE CULTURE OF SAVING
Saving is an important base of investment. It is one of the crucial parts of the continuation of life. Saving enables the human life to survive and develop. It is one of the very important ways of promoting work, employment and development. The concept of saving could be explained in terms of time, resource and money. Saving does not mean suffering or facing problems where there is sufficient money or resources. Saving means the proper utilization of the three aspects of saving-time money and resources. It is from these perspectives that the saving culture of the Tigreans will be treated. Do the people of Tigray have the culture of saving? This means, do they have the culture of using their time, resources and money properly?
Money is the blood of the socio-economic and political life of society. It is very important for health service, education, housing, feeding and the like. Man is supposed to travel many ups and downs to get money which is necessary for survival or the continuation of life on this earth. Hence, it is advisable and obligatory to save in proportion to one’s income. It is believed that ‘water drops will fill a barrel’ at one time in future. So a saved penny will grow into thousands of birr. Saving gives confidence to life and enables man to work comfortably. What is the condition of Tigreans in this respect of monetary saving? With few exceptions, most of my informants agree that Tigreans do have the culture of financial saving for a long period of time. One very clear manifestation of absence of financial saving is the poverty of the society.
The issue of time is also an important aspect of saving. This means, the proper utilization of time for productive duties will increase the amount of financial saving. On the other hand, the proper and productive utilization of time will give you the necessary time to produce more, and more production will enhance saving. There are some exceptional individuals who are considered as savers of money, but the majority of the populations do not save time, resources and money in the real sense of the term. The total absence or poor nature of the culture of saving emanated from poor education and poor production. The concept itself is not well understood here in our society. Some defined the concept of saving as keeping what has remained from total consumption. And as it have been discussed above, for a number of reasons there will not be any ‘remaining’ or extra. Hence, there will never be extra money that could be saved in such unproductive conditions. Traditionally people used to keep part of their money and production at home. They do this not for the sake of life promotion but for contingency reasons and, cultural and religious ceremonial purposes. What had been collected for years and kept un touched at the expense the suffering the family will be consumed within hours in the name of either Serg, Teskar, or Deges. These expenses are most of the time show of wealth or ‘ye-habt masaya’. The modern centre of saving- the bank system-is relatively speaking a later induction. And it is not still modernized and well utilized. Many people prefer to keep what they have at home to putting it in the bank. (Info. Fesehatsion Teka)
Peoples are aware of the expensiveness of Teskar, Serge, and any other Degse, but still the traditional enforces obliges them to do so. The culture does not allow ignoring their forefathers’ custom. A person who did not celebrate the Teskar of his deceased member of his family or relatives will be undermined and isolated from the public. He or she will be insulted directly and indirectly by friends. The Church also takes a ‘strong religious measure’-excommunicate the person who failed to commemorate his/her deceased member. Such priestly measure is considered as a Godly pronunciation, thus it is both feared and ‘respected’. Therefore, there is no one, who is dare enough to break such a strong and deep rooted tradition.
Ato Amare Mesfin, a teacher informant, also summarized the saving concept the people of Tigray as a people ‘buying what it sees rather than what it planned.’ The people have no planned life. Life is lead instinctively. It is life itself that leads the person rather than the vise-verse.
Resources: This aspect of the issue of saving includes both
the material and human resources. Material resources include all what we have
been given by God as a natural gift and the various materials we use in the
day-to-day activities. The human labour is another very important resource in
the human development. The issue of preservation and economic utilization of
the limited resources is very poor in Tigray and in
Because of our poor technology, we are utilizing a very limited part of our material or natural resources. And the issue of efficient utilization of such limited resource is questionable. As it is mentioned above we are not planning and economize our utility. We consume more on salary days and very small in the middle of the month. Hotels are full of people at the end of each month. The wastage is tremendous in government offices. Government properties are properties with out ownership. Most people do not care for the properties of the state, and this is the product of poor national sense and institutional sentiment. There is a good expression that well explains the public consideration for state property: If a person closes the door of a tax improperly, the owner is reported to say “do consider my car as code-4 ‘. Code-4 vehicles are government cars that ‘do not need any care’. Wastage of mainly government resource is becoming a ‘culture’. Most informants agree that Tigreans do not have the culture of considering government and public resources as one’s own property. Peasants are devastating the forest for a number of reasons as if it is their own property. The public at large has no the practical culture of replenishing what it used exhaustively. All these are of course products of lack of education and poor f operational system. Even though there are ‘educated’ citizens in the wasting brigade, most members of the society utilize resources improperly because of lack of education and poor national vision, which is eroded by the political instability.
The government from time immemorial gave much emphasis and attention to politics and political integration than the economic issue and integration. Paradoxically, it is the poor economic ground and poor economic integration that coupled with the political unrest that damage and consume much of the resources of the country. The political unrest is also the product of poverty. The government utilize much its time of the mass media for political concern. It is not trying to teach the public the ways of economizing and preserving resources. The ‘Japanizing’ element and senses of the first half of the 20th century is absent today or it is diminishingly eroded and faded out.
Time:-Among Ethiopians or Tigreans the concept of time is distorted and it is considered to be equivalent to ‘the soil of the earth’. This shows that there is plenty of spare time among Ethiopians or Tigreans. This manifests that most their time is wasted by unproductive dealings. The knowledge about the economic value of time is very-very poor. Ya-habesha qataro (Literary means the Habesha appointment) is well known by regular delays. Our misconception of time starts from such cultural practices. Ethiopians are blamed for their disrespect of appointment; this means they are either very early or very late in their appointment. This, on the other hand, clearly shows how much time Ethiopians or Tigreans invest on economic activities. We also pass long and long time chatting and for tea break; and move sluggish at work. This remembered me what a ferenji friend systematically commented: after observing the walking style of Ethiopians, which is carelessly and slowly, he asked whether Ethiopians of that particular town are sick or have something wrong with them. The Ethiopian heard him conscience-stricken and said nothing.
In general sense the condition is much more complex and paradox. We are poor; we do not use working time properly, but consume morethan we deserve.
More over, we are demanding eight-hour working time. It could be really good to think equally with the more developed countries, but the important issue here is that they have already established very strong economic base and succeeded to eat properly. But in our case we could not eat properly because our economic base is poorly grounded. The developed countries are still struggling to lessen the working time even lesser than eight. This is to engage themselves in mental activities or to enrich their knowledge. It is also to get additional time to work elsewhere for additional income. But it should be clear that they succeeded to establish such strong economic base working for more than 12, 14 or 16 hours. And even today peoples in the west are working for more than eight hours by employing themselves in different companies. For them reduction of time is logical; for us it is paradox. Hence, we have to rethink about this issue. On the opposite we have to fight to increase and efficiently use our working time. (Info: Zeray W/Gerima)
In
connection with time, the culture of procrastination is another problem of
Tigreans or Ethiopians. This is the product of both poor time concept and
unpreparedness for work. Postponement of duties is widely ‘cultured’. Not to
complete work on time is another problem in economic development. Tomorrow is
another day and it has its own share. (Info: Teacher Temesgen Endalew)
WHAT IS TO BE DONE?
This is a basic issue. All informants agree that Tigreans or all Ethiopians need change in their economic culture. But the ‘how’ question is not clearly stipulated and articulated. Education is, in any way, central to the anticipated change. All say that ‘we need to learn to minimize many of our problematic economic cultural practices.’ These include over population, poor health care and other traditional practices as mentioned above. (Student informants: Tebereh Gezae, Asmeret Beyene, Berihu Fiseha and Gebre-hiwot Teklay). Education could also enhance creative capacity and rational thinking. Education could not necessarily entail schooling. The mass-media, rather than being preoccupied by over dosed political issues and some unnecessary or over loaded programmes, better provide time to teaching the populace about the economic culture. It is very difficult to change such deep rooted backward tradition within a short period of time. But we have to start now. It is clear that change needs layers of years but the effort should begin now and today. (Info: Abeba Belay).
Others
also proposed to train pioneers and strong leaders and cultural campaigners. We
need a sort of popular ‘Zemecha’ against retarding economic cultural practices.
(Info: Haile-Mariam Amare, Sahle-Selassie, Desta Kahsay, Mulu Mebrehatom,
Mesfin Amare and others.) One of the participants of the ‘Shay-Buna’ Talk show
programme, on 29 Nehase (August) 1997 EC also proposed to cultivated a new,
industrious and economically cultured generation using both home and schools as
centers of learning the essence of economic culture. Both teachers and parents
could play crucial role in the creation of a new cultured generation. Parents
should teach their children the art, the necessity and importance of work at
home. Both male and female should be treated equally at home. They should be
assigned to duties on equal grounds with out any discrimination. The early
commencement of such practice will help all the family and the trainees. (Info:
Teachers- Getu Kahsay, Tekle-Mariam G/Wubet, and Aradesh Desalegn) Concerning
the role schools informants are also suggesting preparation of new and
additional curriculum that could enhance better economic culture among school
children. At least it will help students to conceive the essence of better
economic culture. Such educational forum should be prepared from an early
educational level and continue to higher educational institutions. The attainment
of the essence and concept of economic culture and its practical application
need continuity. The learning could be integrated systematically into the
various subjects or courses delivered at different level. In the whole process
of enhancing better economic culture, the leadership of both parents and
teachers is paramount and indispensable. Children need role models to be
imitated. Parents and teachers, rather than encouraging children to fill the
American DV lottery and the flight to the Arab world, better inculcate the
sense of nation hood and common national vision. All Ethiopians may have left
New ‘Japanizers’ and volunteer pioneers better make campaigns all over the country under a general movement programme that may be called ‘A NATIONAL REVOLUTIONARY MOVEMENT FOR BETTER ECONOMIC CULTURE’.
Still
others proposed that the government should draft a better mobilizing,
encouraging and enabling economic and social policies. This could be done with
the active participation of citizens. In this line the Ethiopian government had
already launched two ‘basic’ systems to enhance productivity. This includes Wutet
Tekor (literally means’ result based pay’) and Bder ena Quteba
(Literally means ‘micro-finance credit’). In Tigray both systems are in
‘operation’ but under a strong but undeclared opposition from the society. The
genesis of the oppositions seems to emanate from either lack of understanding
of the concept or failure from contextualizing both the concepts and the
application and thus misunderstanding dominated which seems to be followed by
wrong perception and application of the systems. The direct utilization and
application of foreign ideas and practices is becoming a culture in
There is no one who is dare enough to oppose this system. A large majority of my informants appreciated the system in principle; but opposed the way it was applied. In principle Wutet Tekor demands planning and execution this same plan. This is the basic principle. At this level it is nice. Even though it was theoretical, this was the guiding principle of work in general. It is true that there were some sectors that were already working on the bases of the main principle but the effect was not as explained in the Wutet Tekor of today. There were and are very efficient, courageous and industrious workers but who were not rewarded. And it is true that there is a potential need to work hard every where. And it is believed that Ethiopians could formulate their own way of enhancing efficiency and productivity. What is needed is encouraging leadership and really and honest rewarding system. The reward will encourage people to work hard. To deny reward for all will kill the courageous working spirit of those who had already taken work as culture. The Wutet Tekor also produced discontent because of the following basic issues:
· The system tried to treat all sectors in the same way. All sectors, irrespective of their nature of activities were forced to run in the same track. A teacher, a doctor, an engineer or any other sectors of work are ‘ordered’ to plan and execute in the same way. The plan and the way of execution vary from sector to sector and from profession to profession. Some times the plan was given by ‘masters’ or principals and some time by foreign advisers, who were working in some bureaus. In Tigray, an experience was told, where a foreign woman had prepared a plan in English, where as the working language is Tigrinna, and given to the workers to execute it.
· The system is also criticized because it gave absolute power to principals, who abused their position. It was reported that around Bezet a teacher the principal, who had been in good relations, went to the police because they fought each other on the question of Wutet Tekor. Before the quarrel, the director was infavour of the teacher and he well acknowledged the activities of the teacher as role model but because of their personal disagreement on personal issues, the director lowered the result of the teacher. Another director was also reported to raise income for the school from teachers’ contribution. The principle was that the earlier the contribution the higher the mark will be. Because of the authority and power of principals, workers were forced to be submissive to their master. (Info. Assistant Sergeant, Haregot Asmelash)
· The system in general was ordered to be applied ‘from above’ with out sufficient or any orientation of the way of application. The very alien nature of the system produced discontent and resistance. The poor understanding of the system from top to down also necessitated the repeated revision of its application that in turn created confusion and inconsistency in its application. (Info. Teacher Temesgen Endalew). Some other teachers had gone to extent of blaming the state that it introduced Wutet Tekor only to deny the two-year salary increment.
· It also encouraged unrealistic activities and results. For instance, a certain subject teacher with less detainees will be rewarded higher efficiency marks and the passes and detainees in a class was also determined from above not to be below or above a determined percentage; for instance 96% passes and only 4% detainees.
Economic development of a nation or any region or an individual should involve citizens at large. With out the persuasion and active participation of citizens there will not be development. So, what so ever a system is introduced, it demands the acceptance of the people. In spite of its usefulness and importance, any system may not be applied if it is not voluntarily accepted by the people. Hence, either we have to orient the people very clearly and strongly to create understanding, contextualize, or try to introduce our own. If all these alternatives are not applied the effect of planting alien system into a new tradition will result in disaster or at least inefficiency. This is clearly seen from the effect of the Wutet Tekor. The government had promised for itself to apply the system of Wutet Tekor and not to increase salary until a sort of result is registered. The effect was double-economic and political. Thus the government was obliged to revise its stand on Wutet Tekor. We sould not learn from our failures. There had been the red light before. The discontent was manifested in different ways. In different meetings peoples were complaining. This was a good time to reconsider the condition.
We Ethiopian have already accepted poverty as a natural fate or in the Amharic version ‘ye-arba qan edle’ (Lit. people have taken poverty as Godly given fate). We have to avoid this believe and we need general change of attitude and outlook towards work. And this could begin from families. Parents should start to be role models to their children and encourage their children to love work and do what they can at their respective age.
REFERENCES
Abir, Mordechai.
“
Arendt, Hannah, “The Human Condition”, in The Inter net Encyclopedia of Philosophy,
Benzing,
Brigitta. “
Introduction into
Culture, Economics, Politics and Cooperation”.
Brandes and Apsel/Sudwind, 2000.
Elmer, A.
Ordonez. “The Meaning of Culture”, in The Sunday Times: the
Edition, 2004
Encyclopedia Britannica, 784-
Enqopa Mahiteme.
“Culture and Tradition Affecting gender Dynamism: The case of
Farchy, Joelle. ‘Economy and Culture’, (Inter net source)
Getachew Kassa. “A general Introduction to Cultural Concepts, Beliefs, Practices and Institutions
and their Impact on
Development.”
Development of
Sociology and Social Anthropology,
University, no date
Idris, Savard
Georges. “The people Of
Proceeding of a workshop on the 25th Anniversary of the Institute of
Development Research,
Lipsky, G. A. “
Ministry of
Education and Fine Arts. “ Culture, A national Problem”.
1967.
McKenzie Wark.
Meaning of Culture, in ‘Society and Culture Association’.
University: Allen &Unwin, 1997
Merid
Wold-Aregay. “Agricultural Technology and Productivity in
Presented for the 6th
Mesfin Wold-Mariam. “Cultural Problems of Development”, A paper prepared for seminar of
Ethiopian studies,
Nyere, J.K.
“Uhuru na Ujamaa: Freedom and Socialism”.
1968.
Palmquist, Stephen.
“A Christian Philosophy of Work”,,( Inter net source)
Pankhurst,
Richard. “Economic History of
University press, 1968.
Plowden, Walter
Chichele. “Travels in Abyssinia and the Galla Country”,
green, and co., 1868
Reeves, Stanley J.. “Philosophy of Work”. Internet source
Reeves, Stanley J, “The Spirituality of Work”, in Founders Journal, 2004, pp.11-15.
Salt. “Voyage to
Samuelson, Paul
A. and William D. Nordhaus, Economics.
Company
Tsegay Gebre-Tsadik. “The Peopling of eastern Tigray: An Ethnographic and Historical Survey”,
in Interdisciplinary Seminar of the
Ababa:
Wylde, Augustus B. “Modern Abyssinia”,
INFORMANTS
|
No |
Name |
Age |
Occupation |
Place |
Date of interview |
Remark |
|
1 |
G/Tensae Gebru |
32 |
Civil S. |
Wukro |
13/10/97 |
|
|
2 |
Tsegay Hadgu |
48 |
personnel |
Wukro |
13/10/97 |
|
|
3 |
Kindeya Abreha |
37 |
Civil S. |
Wukro |
13/10/97 |
|
|
4 |
Hagos Abreha |
45 |
Judge |
Adigrat |
13/10/97 |
|
|
5 |
Mesfin Amare |
37 |
Teacher |
Adigrat |
14?10/97 |
group |
|
6 |
Mulu Mebrehatu |
49 |
Director |
Same |
Same |
,, |
|
7 |
Desta Kahsay |
38 |
A/Director |
same |
same |
,, |
|
8 |
Merhawit Assefa |
18 |
Student |
Adigrat |
14/10/97 |
group |
|
9 |
Samuel Negash |
18 |
Same |
Same |
Same |
,, |
|
10 |
Muez Ahmad |
17 |
Same |
Same |
Same |
,, |
|
11 |
Shefena hagos |
18 |
Same |
Same |
Same |
,, |
|
12 |
Mustefa kemal |
16 |
same |
same |
same |
,, |
|
13 |
Sahle-selasse Teka |
36 |
Mayor |
Adigrat |
14/10/97 |
|
|
14 |
H/Mariam Amare |
40 |
Civil s. |
same |
14/10/97 |
|
|
15 |
Tsegay Abreha |
28 |
photographer |
same |
14/10/97 |
|
|
16 |
Negisty W/Aregay |
45 |
trader |
same |
14/10/97 |
|
|
17 |
Berhe G/Kidan |
30 |
Civil s. |
same |
14/10/97 |
|
|
18 |
Girmay Tadele |
35 |
Civil s. |
same |
14/10/97 |
|
|
19 |
Goitom Mulu |
34 |
driver |
same |
14/10/97 |
|
|
20 |
Ermias Ergeno |
26 |
soldier |
same |
14/10/97 |
|
|
21 |
G/Mariam hailu |
60 |
farmer |
Hagreselam |
14/10/97 |
group |
|
22 |
Birhane kassa |
60 |
farmer |
same |
14/10/97 |
,, |
|
23 |
Kiros kahsay |
53 |
Farmer/priest |
same |
14/10/97 |
,, |
|
24 |
Birhane Gidey |
28 |
farmer |
same |
14/10/97 |
,, |
|
25 |
Tasew Nerea |
50 |
farmer |
same |
14/10/97 |
,, |
|
26 |
Haregot Asmelash |
36 |
police |
Bezet |
14/10/97 |
|
|
27 |
Nega G/her |
35 |
Director |
|
15/10/97 |
|
|
28 |
Twodros Amare |
28 |
Civil.s. |
|
15/10/97 |
|
|
29 |
Mussie mengesha |
27 |
Director |
|
15/10/97 |
Group |
|
30 |
Tesfay berhane |
36 |
teacher |
same |
15/10/97 |
,, |
|
31 |
Seleshi Berhe |
35 |
teacher |
same |
15/10/97 |
,, |
|
32 |
Gidey Berhe |
39 |
Director |
|
15/10/97 |
|
|
33 |
Getu Kahsay |
45 |
teacher |
|
15/10/97 |
Group |
|
34 |
Aradesh desalegn |
43 |
teacher |
same |
15/10/97 |
,, |
|
35 |
H/Mariam G/Wubet |
31 |
teacher |
same |
15/10/97 |
,, |
|
36 |
A/kakir kebedaw |
34 |
police |
|
16/10/97 |
Group |
|
37 |
Tewolde mammop |
44 |
police |
same |
16/10/97 |
,, |
|
38 |
Mebrat |
26 |
f. Police |
same |
16/10/97 |
,, |
|
39 |
Hadera G/Selasse |
39 |
B.manager |
|
16/10/97 |
|
|
40 |
Hagos Mesgena |
60 |
pensioned |
Wuqro m |
16/10/97 |
|
|
41 |
A/Wassie Rezuq |
44 |
Urban chair |
same |
16/10/97 |
|
|
42 |
Abreha G/Michael |
35 |
Farmer |
Wuqro M. |
16/10/97 |
|
|
43 |
Haile Negash |
30 |
Civil s. |
|
16/10/97 |
|
|
44 |
Belay Asgdom |
49 |
Civil S. |
Shire |
17/10/97 |
|
|
45 |
Tewodros Teshome |
28 |
Civil S. |
Shire |
17/10/97 |
Group |
|
46 |
Fisehatsion Teka |
45 |
same |
same |
17/10/97 |
,, |
|
47 |
Zerabrook W/Gerima |
32 |
Private w. |
same |
17/10/97 |
|
|
48 |
Temesgen Endalew |
30 |
director |
same |
17/10/97 |
|
|
49 |
Tebereh Gezae |
18 |
student |
same |
17/10/97 |
Group |
|
50 |
Asmeret Beyene |
15 |
same |
same |
17/10/97 |
,, |
|
51 |
Berihu Fiseha |
19 |
same |
same |
17/10/97 |
,, |
|
52 |
G/Hiwot Teklay |
19 |
same |
same |
17/10/97 |
,, |
|
53 |
Birhanu W/Michael |
42 |
C.S Cultural |
Mekelle |
5/11/97 |
|
|
54 |
Merha Kristos |
76 |
Priest-Abun |
Mekelle |
1/11/97 |
|
|
55 |
Abeba belay |
35 |
Teacher |
Alamata |
5/1/98 |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|